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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY 

YvTLLIAM FEWSMITH, A.M., 

PKINCIPAL OF AN ENGiiiSH AND CLASSICAL SCHOOL. 






EDGAR ArSINGER, 

PEINCIPAL OF KEYSTONE QEAMMAR SCHOOL, 
AUTHOBS OF "A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH L ANGTJAGE.'' 



REVISED EDITION. \ 



/ 

PHILADELPHIA: 

OWER, BARNES & POTTS, 



630 MARKET ST. and 523 MINOR ST. 
1870. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S67, by 
?OWER, BARNES & POTTS, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
District ci Pennsylvania. 



8TEEE0TYPED BY L. JOHNSON & Ctt 

PHILADELPHl*. 

PKINIED BY SHERMAN & 00 



PREFACE. 



This book is, as its name designates, elementary iu design and execu« 
tion. It has been prepared with special reference to the abilities and 
the wants of those commencing the study of Grammar, Therefore only 
definitions and principles of primary importance are given, while the 
illustrations, and the exercises for explaining and inculcating them, ar« 
of a simple and famUiar character. 

The definitions are expressed in the same language as that used ij» 
the larger work to which this is intended to be preliminary. By tills 
means, a progressive and consistent series is established, and, in passing 
from the lower and simpler to the higher and fuller, the learner's first 
efff'Tt of memorizing will also be the last, as it will not be necessary 
to unlearn in one that which will have been learned in the other : thus 
the teacher's labor in explaining the more extended application of the 
principles in the advanced work, will be materially lightened. 

The " Introduction" is intended mainly, for oral instruction, being de- 
signed for such pupils as are not fully prepared to enter into the details 
of the science. In this part, therefore, all technicalities are avoided, the 
object being to show the distinctions in the meaning and the ise of words, 
and to derive therefrom appropriate names and a proper classification. 

It is desirable, and it is earnestly recommended, that the attention of 
those commencing the study ot Grammar should be directed to material 
objects, their names, their qualities, their actions, their relations, etc; 
pupils will then be prepared to deduce from what will have been thus 
learned through the senses, those principles which apply to what is ab- 
stract. 

The treatment of the Sentence in the Introduction will, it is hoped, be 
found adapted to the understanding of the beginner. 

In the main body of the work the division of Grammar into four parts 
Ls maintained, but Punctuation and Figures are omitted in Syntax, and 
all of Prosody is excluded, as not necessary to the ?cope and the design 
>f this book. 

PHIM.DELPHIA, January 2, 'SeT. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction .9 

GrRAMMAR, Definition and Division of - . . . 34 



PART I. — ORTHOGEAPHY. 

Letters, Classes of .35 

Words 38 

Spelling 38 

Eulesof 39 



PART II. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Classes of Words 41 

Parts of Speech, Definitions of 41 

Nouns, Classes of 44 

Properties of 45 

Number 45 

Formation of the Plural 45 

Person . . .48 

Gender 49 

Case 50 

Declension of .51 

Parsing, Exercise in 53 

Pronouns 54 

Classes of 55 

Personal - 55 

Compound Personal 56 

Relative 58 

Compound Relative 59 

Interrogative ,60 

Articles 61 

Adjectives .62 

Classes of 62 

Pronominal .64 

Comparison of . , 65 



CONTENTS. 7 
PAea 

Verbs 68 

Classes of, according to Meaning 69 

Properties of 70 

Voice 70 

Mode 72 

Tense 73 

Number and Person 76 

Participles 76 

Classes of, according to Formation 78 

List of Irregular Verbs 79 

Auxiliary, Uses of 83 

Conjugation of 84 

To Be 84 

To Love, Active Voice 87 

To Love, Passive Voice 90 

Adverbs 94 

Classes of 94 

Comparison of 95 

Prepositions • 97 

Classes of • . .97 

Conjunctions 99 

Classes of 99 

Interjections 100 



PART III. — SYNTAX. 

Sentences, Definition of 101 

Classes of, according to Use 101 

Classes of, according to Form 102 

PivisioNs OF Syntax 104 

Analysis . . 105 

Distinctions of Subject and Predicate .... 106 
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate . . 106 
Complex Subject and Complex Predicate . . 107 
Compound Subject and Compound Predicate . 107 

Secondary Parts 108 

Connecting Parts 108 

Independent Parts 108 

Qualifications of Simple Subject . . . 110 

Qualifications of Simple Predicate . , , 110, 111 
', Phrases and Clauses ...,.,. 113 

\ 



CONTENTS. 



Synthesis 

Eule I.— The Subject of a Finite Verb 
. Eule II. — The Nominative Case Indepenflent 
Kule III. — The Possessive Case 
Eule IV.— The Objective Case 
Eule V. — Apposition 
Eule VI. — Same Case after Verbs . 
Eule VII. — Personal Pronouns . 
Eule VIII. — Eelative Pronouns 
Eule IX.— Articles .... 
Eule X. — Adjectives 
Eule XI. — Pronominal Adjectives 
Eule XII. — Agreement of Finite Verbs 
Eule XIII.— Infinitives . 
Eule XIV.— Participles , 
Eule XV.— Adverbs .... 
Eule XVI. — Prepositions 
Eule XVII. — Conjunctions 
Eule XVIII. — Interjections . 

General Eule 

General Exercise . 



114 
. 114 

115 
. 117 

119 
. 120 

122 
. 123 

125 
. 127 

129 
. 130 

132 
. 135 

137 
. 139 

141 
. 142 

144 
. 144 

145 



AN 

ELEMENTAKY 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Grammar is the science whicli treats of tlie cor- 
rect use of language. 

Science means the principles of any branch of knowledge 
arranged according to a system, or in regular order. 

Principles are first things, and are therefore the most itn- 
portant things. 

All branches of knowledge are built up from first things or 
principles, just as a house is built up from its foundation. 

It is necessary to know these first things, in order to under- 
stand exactly very many other things or facts which proceed 
from them. 

When these most important facts, and those which proceed 
from them, are taken together and arranged properly, they 
form what is called a science. 

Thus, Arithmetic is the science of numbers; Grammar is the 
science of language. 

Language is tlie means by whicli human beings 
express or tell their thoughts to each other. 

God gave man not only a mind with which to think, but 
he gave him also the power of speech; that is, the power to 
express his thoughts by means of words. 

Words used by man to express thought, form language. 

9 



10 INTEODUCTION. 

At first all men used or spoke the same language ; after- 
wards, when there came to be various nations or tribes, each 
nation had words peculiar to itself. 

Each of these different sets of words formed a new lan- 
guage; and, as there are a great many different nations, so 
there are many difierent languages. 

Some nations are rude and barbarous ; others have become 
civilized and enlightened. 

Barbarous nations have only a spoken language; while en- 
lightened nations have both a spoken and a written language. 

The inhabitants of enlightened nations are therefore able 
to express their thoughts to each other by means of written 
or printed, as well as by spoken words. 

The people of the United States, the English, the Germans, 
the French, and some others, are enlightened nations. 

The Germans use the German language both in speaking 
and in writing; the French use the French language; the 
English, and the most of the inhabitants of the United 
States, use the English language. 

The principles of the different written languages are ex- 
plained by different grammars, such as German Grammar, 
French Grammar, English Grammar, etc. 



English Grammar is the science wliicli treats 
of the correct use of the English language, both in 
speaking and in v*'riting. 

When we speak, or use spoken language, we utter sounds. 

In spoken language, the simplest sound which can be made 
or uttered, is called an elementary sound. 

In written language, these sounds themselves can not be 
written or printed, but certain marks can be made which 
represetit them, or which serve as signs of them. 

The marks or signs used to represent certain 
sounds of the human voice are called Letters. 

Diflerent written languages have different letters. All the 
letters of any language form the alphabet of that language. 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

In the English alphabet, the letters a, e, i, o, and 
u, and sometimes w and y, are called Vowels. 

All the other letters are called Consonants. 

Two or more letters may be so combined as to 
form, when uttered, but one sound ; as, up, up-on. 

This combination of letters is called a Syllable. 

A single letter may sometimes form a syllable ; as, a in the 
word a-hle. 

Two or more syllables properly combined form wbat i? 
called ; Word. One syllable may be a word ; as, man. 



WORDS. 

A Word is a letter, or a number of letters, used 
to express some idea. 

A Spoken Word is a sound, or a number of sounds 
combined, used to express some idea. . 

A Written Word is a letter, or a number of letters 
combined, used as the sign of an idea; as, a, tree, 
summer, commander. 

As words are used to express ideas or thoughts, a great 
many words are required to express all the thoughts that may 
arise in the mind. 

In the English language, there are many thousand words. 

Although there are so many words in our lan- 
guage, they may be arranged in nine classes or kinds, 
according to the use or the meaning of each word. 

THE CLASSES OF WORDS. 

The names of the Nine Classes of Words are, 
Noun, Pronoun, Article, Adjective, Verb, Ad- 
verb, Preposition, Conjunction, anl Inter- 
jection. 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

In order to know to which class any word belongs, it is 
necessary to know its meaning, and to know how it is used. 



NOUNS. 
All things that we can see, feel, hear, taste, smell, or think 
of, have names. Such things may be called objects. 

The words which are used as the names of objects 
are called Nouns. 

A NoujST is a word used as the name of any thing ; 
as, loff, dress, goodness, heat. 

ExEKCiSE I. — Notice ten objects which you can now see. 

Mention the names of those objects. 

"What are the words used as the names of those objects called? Why? 

Mention the names of ten Objects which yOu can taste or smell. 

What are the words used as the names of thof-e objects called? Why? 

Mention the names of ten objects which you can not see, hear, feel, 
taste, or smell, but of which you can think. 

What are the words used as the names of tl\ose objects called? \Miy ? 

Exercise II. — \_Objects themselves can not be written, but their 
names can be written. The names of boys and girls, and of cities, towns, 
rivers, etc., should each be commenced with a capital letter.] 

Write ten names of boys ; — of girls ; — of great or good men ; — of places ; 
— of good habits ; — of bad habits ; — of flowers ; — of metals ; — of cities or 
towns ; — of animals ; — of trees ; — of rivers. 

To what class of words do those which you have written belong? 
Why? Can we mrite objects? Can we wrjVe the ?!a>nes of objects? What 
names must each be commenced with a capital letter? 

Exercise III. — Mention the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell why each is a noun : — 

Mode l. — " God creates." 

God. — "God" is a noim; it is a noun because it is a word used as a 
name. 

1. The scholars learn. 2. The ship sinks. 3. George reads. 4. The 
grass grows. 5. Idleness displeases. 6. Hear the noise. 7. The day is 
bright. 8. Wisdom is precious. 9. Acquire good habits. 10. The boy's 
hat was lost. 11. America was discovered by Columbus. 12. Children, 
obey your parents. 13. The wolf and the sheep drank from the same 
stream. 14. The heat of the sun melts the ice and the snow. 15. 
Drunkenness is a vice which all should despise. 16. The winds bls-w, 



INTEODUCTION. 13 

and tlae rains fell, and beat upon that house. 17. The tigtr is a strong 
animal ; but it is not equal to the lion in strength. 18. The stars twinkle 
in the sky. 19. Oranges, lemons, and pine-apples grow in hot countries. 
20. Apples, pears, and peaches are produced in temperate climates. 21. 
Early one summer morning, before the family were stirring, an old 
clock, that, without giving its owner any cause of complaint, had stood 
for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped. 



PRONOUNS. 

It would seem awkward, and it would be very tiresome, to 
2nention the name of an object about which we speak very 
often, every time we refer to that object. 

Thus, the expression, " John said that John loved John's 
parents," is a very clumsy one, because John's name is re- 
peated so often. 

The sentence would be much better thus : — " John said that 
he loved his parents." Here, for the noun John, the word he- 
is used ; and for the noun John's, his is used. 

So, also, instead of saying, " Mary lost Mary's books and 
could not find the books," it would be better to say, " Mary 
lost her books and could not find them." 

In the two improved sentences, he, his, her, and them, are 
used for nouns or in place of nouns. 

All words that are used in place of nouns are 
called Pronouns, a word which, means for nouns. 

A PnoNOTJisr is a word used in place of a nouli ; 
as, " The snow melts as it falls into the stream." 

If John were speaking and wished to say that he himself 
had been reading, he would not say, " John has been read- 
ing ;" he would say, " I have been reading." 

What word is here used in place of the name of the pei'son 
speaking? To what class of words does it belong ? Why? 

In place of the name of one person speaking, we 
use the pronoun /, my, mine, or me. 

If more than one are speaking, we, our, ours, oi 
us, is used. 



14 INTEODTJCTIOIT. 

If Jolm were speaking to James and wished to say that 
James hac' been playing, he would not say, " James has been 
playing ;" he would say, " You have been playing." 

What word is here used in place of the name of the person 
spoken to? To what class of words does it belong? Why? 

In place of the name of one person spoken to, we 
use tlie pronoun thou, thy, thine, thee, you, your, or 
yours. If more than one are spoken to, you, your, 
or you7's, is used. 

If John were speaking to James about Henry, he would 
not say, "Henry was playing, but Henry stopped;" he would 
say, " Henry was playing, but he stopped." 

What word is here used in place of the name of the person 
spoken of ? To what class of words does it belong? Why? 

In place of the name of one man, one boy, etc., 
spoken of, we use the pronoun he, his, or him. If 
more than one are spoken of, they, their, theirs, or 
them, is used. 

In place of the name of one woman, one girl, etc., 
spoken of, we use the pronoun she, her, or hers. If 
more than one are spoken of, they, their, theirs, or 
them, is used. 

In place of the name of one thing without life 
spoken of, we use it, or its. If more than one are 
spoken of, they, their, theirs, or them, is used. 

In the list of pronouns, it will be noticed, different pro- 
nouns are used for the name of the person speaking, the per- 
son spoken to, and the person spoken of 

Exercise I. — What pronouns may be used for the name of one 
person speaking? What pronouns may be used if more than one are 
speaking? 

What pronouns may be used for the name of one person spoken to? 
What pronoins may be used if more than one are spoken to ? 



INTEODUCTION. 15 

Wliat pronouns may be used for the name of one man, etc , spoken of? 
— of one woman, etc., spoken of? — of one thing without life spoken of? 

What pronouns may be used if more than one man, woman, or thing 
without life, are spoken of? 

Exercise II. — Use a proper pronoun instead of repeating a noun 
in each of the following sentences : — 

" Mary lost Mary's cloak." 

Model. — In place of the noun Mary's, the pronoun Aer should be 
used, and the sentence should be, " Mary lost her cloak." 

1. George forgets George's lesson. 2. Charles said that Charles was 
tired. 3. Edwin has mislaid Edwin's knife. 4. George and William 
lost George's and William's books. 5. James, wiU James come here? 6. 
Mary can do well if Mary will try. 7. The river is narrow, but the river 
is deep. 8. The vessels fired a salute as the vessels passed the fort. 9. The 
boy lost the boy's way, and the boy lay in the woods all night. 10. Bees 
gather bees' honey in the summer, and store honey away for bees' use' 
in the winter. 11. Children should try to please children's parents in all 
things. 

To what class of words does each word used in place of a noun 
belong? 

Exeecise III. — Use the proper pronoun in each of the following 
blanks : — 

1. The boy struck — sister, and hurt — very much. 2. A cloud passed 
under the sun and hid — . 3. Some birds build — nests on the ground. 
4. Beavers build — houses by the side of some stream. 5. When the tra- 
velers had rested, — continued — journey. 6. Boys, do not let — passions 
control — . 7. Some animals are killed for — fur. 8. The old beggar 
wanted some food, for — was very hungry. 9. Victoria is loved by — 
subjects. 10. Every boy can become a good man if — will try. 11. God 
makes — sun to shine on the just and on the unjust. 12. The tree lay - 
where — fell. 

For what noun has the pronoun in each sentence been used? What is 
a pronoun ? 

Exercise IV. — Mention each pronoun in the following sentences, 
and tell for what noun it is used : — 

" The roses have lost their beauty." 

ModeIi. — Their. — "Their" is a pronoun; it is a pronoun because it 
is a word used in place of the noun roses. 

1. The bird sings because it is happy. 2. Love a friend and never 
forsake him. 3. Thomas, I have seen your cousin ; he is well. 4. The 
eagle has his home in the mountain. 5. The cow and her calf were both 
sold. 6. When spring comes, trees put forth their leaves. 7. Samuel 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

studies his lesflon at home. 8. Speak the truth and you will be 
respected. 9. The basket had four eggs in it. 10. The stag will not 
stand still when he sees a man or a dog, 11. Bees live in a hive; they 
work hard. 12. Ann, will you let us play with your toys? 

Exercise V. — Write in one column the nouns in the last exer- 
cise, and in another column the pronouns which stand for them. 

Write in a third column the nouns which have no pronouns standing 
for them. 



ARTICLES. 
If we speak of an object by merely mentioning its name, 
as, tree, apple, horse, it is not always known whether any 
particular tree, apple, or horse is meant, or not. 

For the purpose of showing whether or not any- 
particular object or objects are meant, the words a, 
an, and the may be used. 

Thus, in the expression, a tree, a is used to denote one tree 
of a number of trees, but it does not denote any particular 
tree; it does not limit the meaning of the word tree to any 
particular object. 

Also in the sentence, " Give me an apple," I do not mean 
to ask for a particular apple; any apple will suit. 

But in the sentence, " The horse was stolen," the word the 
shows that a particular horse is meant ; it limits the meaning 
of the word horse to some particular object. 

The words a, an, and the are called Articles. 

An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is 
used before a noun to limit its meaning; as, a horse, 
an ounce, tlie river. 

A is used before a word which, when spoken, be- 
gins with a consonant sound ; as, a man, a union. 

An is used instead of a, before a word which, 
when spoken, begins with a vowel sound; as, an 
east wind ; an honest man. 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

The may be used before a spoken word beginning 
with either a vowel or a consonant sound; as, the 
east, the north. 

Exercise I. — Use the before each of tlie following nouns: — 

Edge, curls, bush, sparrows, father, pleasures, unit, odors. 

Use properly a or an before each of the following nouns, and tell why 
it should be used : — 

Ode, song, deed, act, prince, expense, wish, union, claim, 
^g, stand, evening, arbor, bower. 

To what class of words does a or an belong? Why? — the? Why? 

Exercise 1 1. — Use properly a or an in the following sentences, 
and tell why it should be used : — 

1. Honeysuckles gi"ew by the door of — humble dwelling. 2. — honest 
man is God's best work. 3. They rode for — hour and then rested. 4. 

— unit is the smallest number. 5. — united people can not be conquered. 
6. — ant-hill was seen on — hill. 7. — orange was bought for the sick 
child. 8. — wonderful change took place. 9. The*event happened at 

— evil hour. 

What is an article? 

Exercise III. — Mention each article in the following sentences, 
and tell why it is an article : — 

"A knife was lost." 

Model. — A. — "A" is an article; it is an article because it is a word 
used to limit the meaning of the noun knife; it shows that no particular 
knife is meant. 

1. In an hour there are sixty minutes. 2. The beasts and the birds 
have gone to their shelter. 3. What is the use of an eye, if it is not em- 
ployed? 4. The squirrel makes a hole in an old tree and lives in it. 5. 
The world upon which we live is a large ball. 6. The eyes of an eagle 
can gaze at the bright sun. 7. The sword-fish is a curious creature. 

Exercise IV. — Write in separate columns the nouns, the pro- 
nouns, and the articles, in the preceding sentences. 



ADJECTIVES. 

Certain words are used to denote the shape, the color, the 
number, the size, etc. of objects: thus, a round ball; a green 
leaf; fifty miles; the largest apple. 

If we say, "A sweet apple," we mean that the apple has or 
possesses the quality of sweetness. 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

We can not speak or write the quality of any thing ; that ia 
in the thing itself; but a word can be used which will denote 
that quality : thus, the word good denotes the quality good- 
ness; the word liot denotes the quality heat. 

A word that denotes some quality of an object is said to 
describe that object. 

We can not speak or write number, but words can be used 
which will denote the number of any object or objects: thus, 
five denotes number. 

A word that denotes some number of any object or objects 
is said to limit that object or those objects.- 

A word used with tlie name of an object to de- 
note some quality or number respecting that object, 
is called an Adjective. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or to 
limit a noun or a j)i"onoun ; as, the rich man ; ten 
dollars ; he is gooct. 

Such words as good, bad, obedient, sweet, sour, happy, bright, 
virtuous, red, green, and a great many others, are adjectives 
which describe. 

Such words as one, two, first, second, single, double, twofold, 
each, any, all, many, other, etc., are adjectives which limit. 

Exercise I. — Use with each of the following nouns and pro- 
nouns a word which will describe or limit it: — 

Trees, flowers, buds, horse, cow, book, slate, pencil, city, 
lamp, river, day, night, cloud, beauty, George, queen, Jane, 
sky, he, she, president, iron, they. 

What is a word which describes or limits a noun or a pronoun called? 

Exercise II. — Use each of the following words to describe or 
limit a noun or a pronoun : — 

Happy, obedient, double, truthful, straight, largest, excellenli 
best, lovely, northern, fewer, black, cleaner, industrious, lazy, 
lonely, troublesome, twenty, triple, foolish, beloved, unknown. 
hard-working, fifty-five. 

To what class of words does a word which describes or limits a noun 
or a pronoun belong ? 



INTEODUCTION. 19 

Describe each object wbich you may see in this room by using an 
adjective with the name of that object. 

Exercise II I. — Use an adjective in place of each blank in the 
following sentences : — 

1. The valley lay between — mountains. 2. A — house stood on the 
hill-side. 3. I have a very — home. 4. Charles's — temper caused — 
unhappiness to his parents. 5. You should be — , and — , and — to 
every body. 6. Her — ringlets, and — cheeks, and — eyes, excited ad- 
miration. 7. A righteous man is as — as a lion. 8. — pecks make — 
bushel. 9. The — child played upon the — beach. 10. — words stir up 
anger. 11. A walk along the — lane is — , when the — , — day draws to 
a close. 12. Henry still looked — , though he was much — . 

Exercise IV. — Mention the adjectives in each of the following 
sentences, and tell why each is an adjective: — 

"A soft answer tumeth away wrath." 

Model 1. — Soft.—" Soft" is an adjective; it is au adjective because 
it is a word used to describe the noun answer. 

" The first snow has fallen." 

2. — First. — "First" is an adjective; it is an adjective because it is a 
word used to limit the noun snow. - 

1. Bright eyes sparkle. 2. Sweet sounds soothe the ear. 3. Grievous 
words stir up anger. 4. The himgry lion roars. 5. Ten cents make one 
dime. 6. The two men lost their way. 7. The green leaves wither. 8. 
The Holy Bible teaches heavenly wisdom. 9. He is happy, but I ai \ 
sad. 10. How bright and beautiful are the flowers on a May morning ! 
11. On an autumn night a high wind blew, and a heavy rain fell. 12. 
The coarsest food tastes good to a hungry man. 13. The morning 
bright, with rosy light, has waked, me up from sleep. 

Exercise V. — Write in one column the adjectives in the pre- 
ceding sentences, and in another, the nouns and the pronouns which 
they describe or limit. 

Write also in separate columns the other nouns and pronouns, and 
the articles. 

Y E R B S, 

We can not speak of any thing without saying that it does 
something, or that it acts; or else that it has existence or 
being; or else that it is in some condition or state. 

Thus, in the sentence, " The bird flies," the word flies is 

used to assert, or declare, or say that the bird does something, 

or that it acts. 

B 2» 



20 INTEODUCTION. 

In the sentence, "The boy is here," the wcrd is is aged to 
assert that the boy has being or existence here. 

In the sentence, " John sleeps," the word sleeps is used to 
assert that John is in a certain state. 

A word which asserts the action, the being, or 
the state of any thing is called a Verb. 

A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or 
state; as, "The boy killed a bird." — "They have 
been away." — " William lies on the grass." 

Two, three, or even four words, are often taken together as 
forming one verb. 

Thus, in the sentences, "The horse has eaten," "James 
may have gone," and " He might have been hurt," has eaten, 
may have gone, and might have been hurt, are verbs. 

Verbs are the most important words in the lan- 
guage, because no sentence can be made to express 
comj)lete sense without the use of a verb. 

Exercise I. — Mention twenty words which express action ; such 
as run, sing, etc. 

Mention five words which express being, or state ; as, is, rests, etc. 

[The action, the being, or the state of any thing can not be written, 
but words expressing that action, being, or state can be written.] 

Write five words used to assert action, concerning boy: thus, "The 
boy runs," etc. 

Write five words asserting action, being, or state, of the farmer; — of 
the merchant; — of the sailor; — of he; — of soldiers; — of animals; — of 
birds; — of they; — of lessons; — of money; — of wisdom; — of idleness; — 
of cities ; — of ships ; — of good men. 

To what class of words does each word which expresses action belong? 
—each word which expresses being or state? 

Exercise 1 1. — Use a suitable verb to complete each of the follow- 
ing sentences: — 

1. The sun — . 2. The snow — on the mountain. 3. I — my book. 
4. The oak — a noble tree. 5. Houses — of brick or stone. 6. He — to 
the ground and — himself. 7. The ship — across the ocean. 8. The 
light — through glass. 9. Carpenters — houses. 10. He — the ball and 
— it agaiirist the house. 11. Oranges — in warm countries. 12. Coal — 



INTEODUCTION. 21 

' — *n the hilly regions of Pennsylvania. 13. Siieep for their wool 

14. Some books — pretty stories. 15. The hoys — to see their cousins 
who — in the country. 16. Kind words — the heavy heart. 17. In- 
dians only lived in America when it . 18. The flowers which — 



Tell why the words used in the blanks are verbs. 

Exercise III. — Name each vei-b in the following sentences, and 
tell why it is a verb : — 

" He has finished his work." 

MoDEi.. — Has finished. — "Has finished," is a verb; it is a verb be- 
cause it is a word used to assert action. 

1. They were frightened. 2. The soldiers surrounded the house. .3. 
The farmer sows the seed and reaps the grain. 4. He found the place. 
5, The place was found. 6. The soldier lost his life. 7. He might have 
been loved. 8. The river overflowed its banks. 9. A pretty brook 
runs through the meadow. 10. Idle boys should learn a lesson from 
the busy bees. 11. Flora was fond of the lovely flowers. 12. Little 
drops of water make the mighty ocean. 13. The boy and his sister 
played together. 14. Flowers soon fade, and wither and die. 15. 
Children should store their minds with knowledge. 16. Clocks and 
watches measure time. 17. Twenty-four hours make a day. 18. Black- 
birds steal the farmer's com. 

Exercise IV. — Write in one column the nouns found in all the 
Bentences in the last Exercise. 

In separate columns write all the pronouns and all the adjectives in 
the last Exercise. 



ADYERBS. 

In the sentence, "The train moves swiftly," the word 
swiftly is used to show in what manner the action expressed 
by the verb moves takes place. 

Some words are used to denote the place of an action; as, 
" The ball struck there." 

Words are also used to express the time of an action ; as, 
' The train moved immediately." 

In the sentences given above, the words swiftly, there, and 
immediately are adverbs. 

The word adverb means to a verb, and is so called because 
an adverb is usually j'omec^ to a verb, or is used with a verb to 
show the time, the place, or the manner of an action. 



22 Hs'TEODUCTION. 

An adverb may express how or in what dec, ree the quality 
denoted by an adjective is considered ; as, " He is a very had 
boy." 

An adverb may also be used to vary or qualify the mean- 
ing of another adverb ; as, " The bird flew very swiftly." 

A word whicli denotes tlie time, tlie place, or 
tlie manner of an action expressed by a verb, or 
which varies or qualifies the meaning of an ad- 
jective or of an adverb, is called an Adverb. 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, 
"The scholar studies industriously!' — "James 
learned a very difficult lesson." — ^^ How eagerly he 
hurried haclzT 

Such words as ahvays, daily, ever, lately, now, never, often, 
seldom, then, yesterday, etc., are adverbs of tiine. 

Such words as hence, here, hither, out, there, thither, where, 
nowhere, somewhere, yonder, etc., are adverbs of place. 

Such words as so, thus, well, badly, easily, somehow, certainly, 
truly, roughly, smoothly, etc., are adverbs of manner. 

Some of the adverbs which qualify adjectives or other ad- 
verbs are almost, altogether, ever, much, more, less, not, so, very. 

Exercise I.^With each of the following verbs use five words 
which will denote the time of the action; as, "James runs now;" — five 
which will denote the place; as, "He works there;" — five, which will 
denote the manner; as, "She sings sweetly:" — 

Kun, walk, read, eat, heard, will come, has gone, listened, I 
see, shines, grow, whistle, speak, hide, had written, declare. 

"With each of the following adjectives use words which will qualify its , 
meaning; as, truly noble : — 

Good, wise, bad, foolish, industrious, honest, lively, uneven, i 
lazy, clean, ripe, sour, strange, thoughtful, plain. j 

With each of the following adverbs use other adverbs, which will * 
qualify its meaning : — Quietly, often, wisely, foolishly, fiercely, well. '< 

To what chiss of words does a word which denotes the time, the place, 
or the manner of an action, or which qualifies the meaning of an adjective 
or an adverb, belong? 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

Exercise 1 1. — Use an appropriate adverb in place . Jf each blank 
in the following sentences : — 

1. He has — finished his work, 2. The men work — . 3. The rain 
falls — . 4. The snow fell — to the ground. 5. He is — a — good scholar. 
6. Solomon was a — wise man. 7. Glass is a — brittle metal. 8. I have 
Been him — . 9. I do not know — the mistake happened. 10. Speak the 
truth — . 11. How — the birds sing when the sun shines — . 12. The 
boat sailed — into port. 13. He who rises — loses the best part of the 
day. 14. He rode — than we. 15. Eead — if you would read — . 

Exercise III. — Name the adverbs in the following sentences, 
and tell why each is an adverb : — 

" He soon returned to his home." 

Mod El,. — Soon. — "Soon" is an adverb; it is an adverb because it 
is a word used to denote the time of the action expressed by the verb 



1. Commence your labor now, and it will soon be finished. 2. Sparks 
fly upward. 3. The party returned sooner than we expected. 4. Never 
do a mean action. 5. Live honestly, and you will not want. 6. The 
brook danced noisily over the pebbly bottom. 7. He bitterly repented 
of his bad act. 8. You are certainly foolish if you waste your time. 9. 
They do not recite very well'. 10. They divided the apples equally. 11. A 
boy can not become suddenly bad. 12. Corn grows rapidly in rich soil. 
18. Speak truthfully, and you will always be believed. 

Exercise IV. — Write in separate columns the nouns, the pro- 
nouns, the adjectives, and the verbs in Exercise III. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Certain words are used to show a connection between two 
things^; and they usually compare the time oi the place of 
one with that of the other. 

Thus, in the sentence, " The book on the desk is mine," the 
word on connects the idea denoted by the word book, with 
the idea denoted by the Avord desk; — it suggests the place 
of the book with regard to the desk ; that is, the book is on 
the desk, not under it, nor by it, nor in it. 

A word which connects the ideas denoted by two words, 
and compares them with regard to time or place, is said to 
show relation between them. 

Such a word may show the relation between two objects or 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

their names ; between an object and ar action expressed by 
a verb ; or l^etween a noun or a prone un following it and 
some preceding word. 

A word which shows relation between a noun or 
a pronoun and some preceding word is called a Pre- 
position. 

A Preposition is a Avord used before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding 
word; as, "They sat wider the tree." — " The blame 
rests upon him." 

There are about fifty prepositions in the language. Nine- 
teen of them are called simple prepositions; they are at, 
after, by, down, for, from, in, on, of, over, past, round, since, 
through, till, to, under, up, and with. 

Thirteen commence with the syllable a; as, aboard, above, 
across, against, along, etc. 

Nine commence with the syllable be; as, before, behind, 
below, beneath, etc. 

Ten are formed by uniting two prepositions or a preposi- 
tion and an adverb ; as, into, throughout, ^ipon, etc. 

Exercise I. — How many prepositions are there ? 

How many are simple prepositions? Mention some of tliem. 

Name the three ways of forming those prepositions that are not simple 
prepositions. 

Mention three prepositions formed in tlie first way ; — three formed in 
the second ; — three formed in the tliird. 

Between what does a preposition show relation ? 

E X »R c I s E 1 1. — Use an appropriate preposition in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

1. Victoria is queen — England. 2. The house was shaken — the 
wind. 3. It is pleasant to roam — the forests — the warm days — sum- 
mer. 4. A voyage — the ocean is sometimes dangerous. 5. News 
can now be sent — the United States — Europe — the telegraph — the 
ocean. 6. The boy seemed bent — mischief 7. The thief attempted to 
rob him — his money. 8. The river abounds — fish. 9. Reflect often 
•— your conduct. 10. Depend — your own exertions and not — th 



INTRODUCTION. 25 

exertions — others. 11. The robin flew — the tree and hid itself — 
the branches. 

Exercise III. — Name each preposition in the following s«r- 
tences, and tell why it Ls a preposition : — 

" The train ran over the boy." 

Mode l. — Over. — " Over" is a preposition ; it is a preposition because 
it is a word used before the noun boy to show its relation to the verb ran. 

1. Two boys went into the woods one day, and hunted for a bird's 
nest; they soon found one on a low branch of a tree, with the bird on 
the nest. 2. One boy crept behind the tree and caught the bird ere it 
could fly from the nest. The other boy took the nest, which had four 
blue eggs in it, and then they started for home. 3. "While they were 
going home they began to quarrel about the nest, because each wished it 
for himself. While they struggled, the bird flew away from them, and 
they trod upon the eggs in the nest and broke them. 

Exercise IV. — Write in one column the prepositions in the 
preceding sentences; in a column on the right hand write the nouns or 
the pronouns before which the prepositions are placed; on the left, the 
words to which they show the relation of the nouns or the pronouns. 

In separate columns write the nouns, the pronouns, the adjectives, the 
verbs, and the adverbs, in the last Exercise. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

"Apples are ripe and pears are ripe." This sentence is 
aiade up of two shorter sentences, of which " Apples are 
ripe" is one, and " pears are ripe" is the other. 

These two sentences are connected or united, or made one, 
by the use of the word and. 

These two sentences can be united so as to make a shorter 
sentence than the one first given: thus, "Apples and pears 
are ripe." 

By omitting the words are ripe after the word apples, and 
is made to connect the words apples and pears; and it also 
prevents the repetition of parts which are alike in both 
sentences. 

A word whicli connects sentences, parts of a sen- 
tence, or words, is called a Conjunction. 



26 INTEODUCTIOX. 

A COiSTJUNCTioisr is a word used to connect the 
Avoids, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, 
between which it is placed; as, "Let us be kind, 
»72cZ just, and good." — "Do not annoy or vex 
your friends," 

The following are some of the principal conjunctions: — 
And, as, also, although, because, both, but, either, for, if, neither, 
nor, or, since, so, than, that, then, and yet. 

A conjunction connects two or more words which belong 
to the same class of words ; that is, it connects two or more 
nouns, two or more pronouns, two or more adjectives, etc. 

ExEKCiSE I. — Name the principal conjunctions. What is a con- 
junction ? 

What kinds of words only can conjunctions connect ? 

Exercise 1 1. — Use an appropriate conjunction in each of the fol- 
lowuig sentences : — 

1. Winter soon passes, — spring returns. 2. His brother came, — he 
did not remain. 3. The scholar was late, — he had played on his way. 
4. His little brother — sister were not able — to read — to write. 5. The 
lame boy can not run — play as you — I can. 6. James was a good 
boy, — he could not learn his lessons as well — his classmates. 7, Boys 
bait their hooks with flies — worms. 8. Study now, — you will not 
always have a chance to do so. 9. Our words — our deeds should 
always agree. 10. Let your words be few — to the point. 

What are the words used to connect words, parts of a sentence, or 
sentences, called? 

Exercise II I. — Name each covjunclion in the following sen- 
ttnces, and tell why it is a conjunction : — 

" We might all learn if we would study." 

Mod Eli. — If. — "If is a ccnjunction ; it is a conjunction because it is a 
»rord used to connect the two sentences, We might learn and we would study. 

1. Labor and rest are as day and night are. 2. I will get the book 
if you wish it. 3. The little feUow su tiered, although he did not com- 
plain. 4. The horse was frigiitened because he heard the noise of the 
cannon. 5. Neither wisdom nor fame can be gained without labor. 6. 
The stars are very far oH] but their distances can be measured. 7. The 
poor boy can not run, nor play, nor jump as he once could. 

8. fn the daytime, the rabbit Lies in its burrow, but in ihe night it 



LNTEODUCTION. 27 

comes and hops around for food; it feeds on herbs ind plants in the 
summer, but in the winter, when there are no green herbs, it feeds on 
buds, twigs, or on the bark of young trees. 

Exercise IV. — ^Write the conjunctions in the last Exercise, and 
the words which they connect. 

Write also in separate columns all the nouns, the pronouns, the 
adjectives, the verbs, the adverbs, and the prepositions, ia the preceding 
sentences. 



INTERJEOTIOIvrS. 
There are a few words which express joy; such as, Aha! 
hurrah! etc. 

Some express sorrow ; as, Oh 1 alas ! etc. 

Some express a desire for silence ; as, Sush ! hist! whist ! etc. 

A word used in sudden calling out, or to express 
joy, or sorrow, or disgust, or laughter, etc., is called 
an Interjection. 

An liSTTEEJECTioisr is a word used in exclamation 
to express some emotion of tlie mind; as, Oh, 
alas! hush! ha! 

Exercise I. — J^Tame the interjections in the following sentences, 
and tell why each is an interjection : — 

"Alas! how hard is my fate !" 

Model. — Alas! — "Alas" is an interjection; it is an interjection 
because it is a word used in exclamation to express sorrow. 

1. Hush! I hear a noise. 2. Ah! my poor dog is dead. 3. Fie! you 
should be ashamed of such conduct. 4. Hurrah ! we have a holiday. 5. 
Oh! how sad a story! 

Exercise 1 1. — Write in separate columns the nouns, the pro- 
nouns, the articles, the adjectives, the verbs, the adrerbs, the prepositions, 
and the conjunctions in the last Exercise. 

General Exercists. 

I. — ^Write in columns the words belonging tc each class of words in 
the following sentences : — 

|_0r, if the teacher prefer, simply name the class of words to which 



'28 INTRODUCTION. 



n 



each vrord in the following sentences belongs, and give the reasons, ao. 
cording to the pr-evious models.] 

I. A kind word can never die. 2. The pony is in the field, but we 
can catch him. 3. The cat jumped upon the chair. 4. The hut waa 
built of logs. 5. Bees often make their home in the tops of hollow 
trees. 6. A big dog ran after Charles, and, alas ! bit him severely. 7. 
Ten dimes make one dollar. 8. The sun's rays dazzled her eyes. 9. 
Death is ever busy: oh! how insecure is life! 10. We hold a pen be-, 
tween the thumb and the fingers. 

II. The Bible is of more value than all the other books in the world: 
we should therefore study it more than any other book. 12. The cruel 
man beat his horse with a heavy club. 13. The lady wore an elegant 
veil. 14. Ellen reads distinctly. 15. A horse is easily guided by a 
rein. 16. My father and I visited the museum, and we saw many 
curious sights. 17. A good boy will not be rude in his conduct. 18. 
Thirty-two quarts are contained in one bushel. 19. Our puss has very 
sharp claws. 20. A sad accident happened on the railroad ; some li /ea 
were lost, and many persons were injured. 

21. When the ground is covered with snow, the crows come very near 
to the house. 22. He was quite calm, though he was in great danger 
23. Was he obedient, or disobedient? 24. Hark! how fiercely the wind 
howls! 25. We will notice the difierent kinds of trees, and will learn to 
tell their names, as we walk along the lane. 26. "Here is a visitor for 
you," said Mary's uncle as he entered the room with a little white 
mouse in a cage. 27. The letters in books are made by means of types; 
ink is put upon the types, and then the types are pressed upon the 
paper. 28. The travelers knew that they would find water there, be- 
cause the grass looked fresh and green. 

II. — [The first word of every sentence should be commenced with a 
capital A period ( . ) must be placed at the end of every sentence.] 

Compose and write ten sentences, each containing a noun and a verb ; 
— ten, each contaLi'ng a noun, a pronoun, and a verb. 

Compose and write ten sentences, each containing an adjective, a 
noun, a pronoun, and a verb; — ten, each containing an adjective, a 
noun, a pronoun, a verb, and an adverb. 

Comprise and write ten sentences, each containing an adjective, a 
noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adverb, and a preposition followed by a 
noun or a pronoun. 

Compose and write ten sentences, each containing a conjunction con« 
necting words, parts of a sentence, or sentences; — ton, containing icier* 
jections. 



INTEODUCTION. 29 

SENTENCES. 

In the preceding lessons we have considered words sepa- 
rately : we will now consider words as they are arranged to 
express thoughts. 

Two or more words arranged properly and 
making full sense form what is called a Sentence. 

A Sentence is two or more words so combined 
as to make complete sense. 

Although each of the words the, rises, and sun has some 
meaning, yet these words do not fully express a thought unless 
arranged in a certain order : thus, " The sun rises." 

At least two words are needed to form a sen- 
tence ; one of them must be a name, or a word used 
for a name, and the other must be a verb. 

No sentence can be formed without a verb. 

Thus, Sugar sweet, or sweet sugar, is not full sense: a verb 
is needed to say or assert something of sugar: thus, " Sugar 
is sweet," or " Sugar tastes sweet." 

No sentence can be formed without something 
of which the verb asserts action, being, or state. 

Thus, writes expresses action; but to form a sentence, or to 
make full sense, something is needed about which to assert 
that action : thus, " John writes." 

Also, sleeps expresses a state; but to form a sentence some- 
thing is needed about which to assert that state : thus, " Mary 
or she sleeps." 

THE PAETS OF SENTENCES. 

Every sentence, however short or however long, 
can be divided into two parts. 

One of these parts is called the Subject; the other 
is called the Predicate. 

No sentence can be formed without these two parts. 



30 INTEODUCTIOIf. 

THE SUBJECT. 

TJie Subject of a sentence is tliat of whicli scine- 
tliing is said or asserted. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Water flows," water is that of 
which flows is asserted. Water, then, is the subject. 

. The word subject means the thing of which something is said. 

In the sentence, " The deep water flows," the deep water is 
that of which flows is asserted. The deep water, then, is the 
subject of the sentence. 

The subject is a noun or a pronoun taken alone, 
or a noun or a pronoun taken with other words. 

In either case this noun or pronoun is called the subject- 
nominative. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Water flows," water is both the 
subject and the subject-nominative. 

In the sentence, " The deep water flows," the deep water is 
the subject, and the noun water taken alone is the subject- 
nominative. 

THE PREDICATE. 

The Peedicate of a sentence is that which is 
said or asserted of the subject, or about it. 

Thus, in the sentence, " Water flows," it is flows that is 
asserted of the subject water. Flows, then, is the predicate. 

The word predicate means something said or asserted of. 

Again, in the sentence, " The deep water flows without 
noise," it is floius without noise that is asserted of the subject, 
the deep water. Therefore flows without noise is the predicate 
of the sentence. 

The verb in the predicate is called the predicate-verb. 

In the sentence, '• Water flows," flows is both the predicate 
and the predicate-verb. 

In the sentence, "The deep water flows without noise," flows 
without noise is the predicate, and flows taken alone is the 
predicate-verb. 

Exercise.- -Mention the subject and the predicate, also the subject. 



INTEODUCTION. 3l 

Tuyminative and the predicate-verb, in each of the folL v; ii g sentences, and 
give the reasons : — 

Model 1. — " Dogs growl." 

In this sentence, dogs is the subject, because it is that of which 
growl is said or asserted ; and growl is the predicate, because it is that 
which is asserted of the subject dogs. 

Dogs is the subject-noun or subject-nominative, and growl is the pre- 
dicate-verb. 

2.—" The fresh air feels very pleasant." 

In this sentence, the fresh air is the subject, because it is that of 
which feels very pleasant is asserted ; and feels very pleasant is the pre- 
dicate, because it is that which is asserted of the subject, the fresh air. 

Air is the subject-nominative, and feels is the predicate- verb. 

1. God is. 2. God is good. 3. He made all things. 4. WiUie lovea 
the country. 5. Foxes prowl. 6. Crickets chirp. 7. The ball rolls 
down the hill. 8. The bright sun warms the earth! 9. Jane has 
plucked the rose. 10. The red rose is a beautiful flower. 11. The 
shower of rain has revived the flowers. 12. The tired beggar sits by the 
wayside. 13. The luscious melons are now ripe. 14. The cunning 
mice ran into their holes. 15. Good lessons have been recited. 16. A 
high mountain is before us. 17. We will climb the high mountain. 
18. My knife is lost. 19. I have lost my knife. 

20. Shame will bring a blush to the cheek. 21. Pleasing manners win 
attention. 22. A regiment of soldiers contains ten companies. 23. The 
busy bees improve the sunny hours. 24. How sweetly the birds sing! 
25. Very sad consequences sometimes result from a single mistake. 26. 
Can you guess the riddle ? 27. The field of grass has been mowed. 28. 
The timid deer was startled by his own shadow in the water. 29. The 
great and good God gives us all our blessings. 



The subject sometimes contains two or more 
subject-nominatives connected by one conjunction 
or more than one. 

Thus, " You and he may come." — " Wheat, corn, rye, and 
oats are raised by the farmers." 

The predicate sometimes contains two or more 
predicate- verbs connected by one conjunction or 
more than one. 

Thus, "You and he may come and may stay awhile."— 
" Charles hops, skips, and jumps." 



32 INTRODUCTION. 

Exercise. — Mention the subjects and the predicates, also the subject- 
nominaiives and the predicate-verbs, in the following sentences: — 

1. Day and night succeed each other. 2. Violets and daisies grow 
along the bank. 3. I love and obey my teacher. 4, The swift hounda 
caught and killed the cunning fox at last. 5. Silks and calicoes are sold 
here. 6. Boots and shoes are worn by men and boys. 7. The farmer 
ploughs and sows his fields. 8. Blackboards, maps, slates, pencils, and 
inkstands are necessary in a school-room. 9. Theodore stopped and 
played on the way to school. 10. Winter's cold frost and the northern 
blasts have come. 11. The little wren built its nest and reared its brood 
under the porch. 12. Butchers slaughter cattle and sheep, and carry 
their flesh to market to sell. 



THE KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence which can not be separated into two 
or more sentences is called a Simple Sentence. 

Thus, " He Avill be loved," " He is good," and " He and I 
are loved," are simple sentences. 

When one sentence or more than one are joined 
to another to exjolain it, or to change or complete its 
meaning, the sentences taken together form what is 
called a Complex Sentence. 

The parts of a complex sentence are connected by the 
conjunctions although, because, for, if, that, unless, until, when, 
or by some similar conjunction. 

Thus, " He will be loved, because he is good," and " I will 
come when you call me," are complex sentences. 

Sentences whose parts are connected by who, whose, whom, 
which, what, or the like, are also complex sentences. 

" Boys who are honest, will be trusted," is a complex sen- 
tence. 

When two or more simple or complex sentences 
are connected by one conjunction or more, they 
are taken together, and form what is called a 
Compound Sentence. 

The parts of a compound sentence are connected by the 



INTRODUCTION. 33 

conjunctions ako, and, hut, or, nor, or by some similar con- 
junction. 

Thus, "He is good, and he will be loved," and "I was 
young, but now I am old," are compound sentences. 

Exercise I. — Kepeat the conjunctions which may be used to con- 
nect the parts or sentences which form a complex sentence. 

Kepeat the other words which may connect the parts of a complex 
sentence. 

Eepeat the conjunctions which may be used to connect the parts of a 
c.-.mpound sentence. 

Are two or more sentences united to form a simple sentence ? 

Are two or more sentences united to form a complex sentence? 

What kinds of sentences may be united to form a compound sen- 
tence ? How ? 

Exercise II. — Mention which of the following sentences are 
simple, which are complex, and which are compound: — 

1. I love you. 2. John and I love you. 3. I love you, and you know 
it. 4. I love you, for you have done me good. 5. Has your brother a 
pair of nice silk gloves ? 6. A little worm spun the silk of which they 
are made. 7. The morning sun proclaims that God is ever good. 8. 
If they did not have any sun, the grass and the trees could not grow. 
9. I have been sick, but I am very well now. 10. Charles has not been 
very successful, yet he is not discouraged. 11. The snow was nearly two 
feet deep, for the storm had lasted through two days. 12. I am soiry 
because I laughed. 

13. William has a pair of new skates, which his uncle George gave him 
for a Christmas present. 14. These flowers make a very pretty nosegay, 
but there is no moss-rose among them. 15. The day was warm, and the 
swing was put up under the shade of the trees. 16. Boys do not know 
what they can do until they try. 17. Martha had a large gray cat, which 
ehe prized very much, for the cat was a good mouser. 18. Snow and ice 
remain in Greenland all the year. 19. The little boys were not cold, 
for the hard work had kept them warm. 20. David's father and mother 
hoped that when spring came he would become better; but no, he 
became worse. 21. The farmer can not reap and mow if he does not 
plow and sow. 22. The wages of sin is death. 23. The worst enemy is 
sin, and the worst evil is the anger of God. 

Exercise III. — Mention the subjects and the predicates, also the 
siMJectrnominatives and the predicate-verbs, contained in the preceding 
sentences. 

Mention also, so far as yo' i can, to what class each word belongs. 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Grammar is tlie science wMcli treats of tie 
correct use of language. 

Science is the principles of any branch of knowledge 
arranged according to system or in regular order. 

Language is the means by which human beings express their 
thoughts in words. Language is either spoken or ivritten. 

English Grammar is the science which treats 
of the correct use of the English language, both in 
sj)eaking and in writing. 

When we speak, we use words : when we write, we use 
words; and the words which we write may be printed. 

Words therefore are both spoken, and written or printed. 

To represent the elementary sounds, or the simplest sounds 
that we utter in speaking, written signs called letters are used. 

Letters properly arranged form written words. 

Words so arranged as to express complete sense, or to as- 
sert something, form sentences. 

When we speak or write in the usual way, we speak or 
write what is called prose. There is another way of ar- 
ranging words and sentences, called poetry, or verse. Hymns 
and songs are verse. 

English Grammar is divided into four parts. 



DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 35 

The four parts of Grammar are Oethogkaphy, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Peosody. 

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches hew to 
spell correctly. 

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify 
them, and shows their changes of form and mean- 
ing. 

Syntax treats of Sentences, and teaches how to 
construct them from words. 

Prosody treats of Verse, and teaches how to ar- 
range words according to the principles of Versi- 
fication. 



^n\ Jfirst. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Oethogeaphy treats of Letters, and teaches 
how to spell correctly. 

Letters are particular marks or signs used to represent cer- 
tain sounds of the human voice. 

THE CLASSES OF LETTERS. 

Letters are divided into two classes ; Vowels and 
Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, 
perfect sound; as, a, e, o. 

That is, the sound made in uttering a vowel is a pure lone 
of the voice which is not interrupted in any way by the lips 
the teeth, oi any other organ of speech. 



36 THE CLASSES OF LETTERS VOWELS. 

A Consonant is a letter whicli represents a sound 
that can be perfectly made only with the aid of a 
vowel ; as, /, k, j. 

That is, a letter which is a consonant can not be fully pro- 
nounced or uttered unless the sound of a vowel is also heard. 

Thus, / is pronounced as if spelled e-J, ef; k is pronounced 
as if spelled k-a, ka. 

VOWELS. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, 
perfect sound. ♦ 

The vowels, or vowel letters, are a, e, i, o, u, and 
sometimes w and y. 

TT or jf is a vowel when it ends a word or a syllable; 
when it is not followed in the same syllable by a vowel; or, 
when it is followed in the same syllable by a vowel not 
sounded; as, hoy, lowly; grown, sylph; style, owe. 

In every other position, w or 3/ is a consonant. 

Exercise. — Mention the vowels and the consonants in the following 
words, and give the reasons : — 

Ice, welfare, terrier, white, awry, judgment, awkward, hand- 
kerchief, shrewd, advertise, gawky, lightning, symptom, gayety, 
Wednesday, wither, dulness, rhyme, sinewy, type, lizard. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

Two vowels may be used together to represent 
one sound. 

When two vowels are used to represent one 
sound, they form what is called a Diphthong; as, 
</a in load; oi in voice. 

There are two kinds of diphthongs ; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded; 
as, ou in mouse; oy in joyful. There are four proper diph- 
thongs; oi, oil, oy, and oiv. 

An Improper Diph' hor.g is one in which but one of the vowels 
is sounded; as, ea in beat; en in neuter. 



CONSONANTS. 37 

Three vowels may be used together to represent 
one sound. 

When three vowels are used to represent one 
sound, they form what is called a Triphthong; as, 
eau in beauty; iew in view. 

There are two kinds of triphthongs ; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels are 
sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or two of the 
vowels are sounded ; as, eye, ieu in lieu. The principal im- 
proper triphthongs are, ieu, eau, iew. 

The consonant q is always followed by u; when 
so placed, u is never considered as a part of a diph- 
thong or of a triphthong. 

Exercise. — Mention the proper and the improper diphthongs and 
triphthongs in the following words, and give the reasons : — 

August, creature, pigeon, pioneer, nutritious, good, beauteous, 
rouse, quoit, eight, said, niece, prairie, sewer, nauseous, loathe, 
portmanteau, quotient, pointer, bazaar, league, views. 

CONSONANTS. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound 
that can be perfectly made only with the aid of a 
vowel. 

The consonants are divided into two classes ; Semi-vowels 
and Mutes. 

Semi-vowels are letters which can be imperfectly sounded 
without the aid of a vowel ; as, c, j, v, y. 

They are c soft, /, g soft, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, and z. 

C has its soft sound (the sound of s) before e, i, and y; 
before other letters it has the sound of k. 

G has its soft sound (the sound of j) before e, i, and y • 
there are, however, some exceptions. 



'■^8 WORDS — SPELLING. 

Foui of the semi-vowels, I, m, n, and r, are called liquids, 
on account of their smooth and flowing sound. 

Mutes are letters which can not be sounded without the aid 
of a vowel ; as, p, q, t, k. 

They are b, e hard, d, g hard, I, p, q, and t. 

SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a letter, or a number of letters, which 
when uttered, form one unbroken sound; as, /ar, 
Orfar, coTn-TTience. 

A syllable may be either a word or a part of a word ; if 
written, it always contains a vowel ; if spoken, a vowel sound. 

WORDS. 

A "Written "Word is a letter, or a number of letters 
properly combined, used as the sign of some idea; 
as, /, day, army. 

A Spoken "Word is a sound, or a number of sounds 
combined, used to express some idea. 

Words are named according to the number of syllables 
■which they contain. 

A word which contains one syllable is called a 
Monosyllable; as, truth: one which contains two syl- 
lables is called a Dissyllable; as, truthful: one which 
contains three syllables is called a Trisyllable; as, 
untruthful: one which contains more than three 
syllables is called a Polysyllable; as, untruthfulness^ 
incomprehensible. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of combining letters properly, 
BO as to form syllables and words. 

The art of spelling is best learned from spelling- 



BULES OF SPELLIlSra. 39 

books and dictionaries, and from observation in 
reading. 

THE PRINCIPAL RULES OF SPELLING. 

The Doubling of the Final Consonant. — 1. The final 
consonant of a monosyllable or of a word accented on tlie last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, is doubled on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel ; 
as, hot, hotter; occur, occurring ; transfer, transferring. 

2. The final consonant is not doubled, if it is not preceded 
by a single vowel, if it is preceded by one or more con- 
sonants, or if the accent is not on the last syllable; as, toil, 
toiling; sound, sounded; differ, different. 

Words ending with silent E.—l. In words ending with 
silent e, e is generally omitted on receiving a suffix beginning 
with a vowel; as, move, movable; love, loved; able, abler. 

In words ending with ce or ge, e is retained before termi- 
nations beginning with a, o, or u, in order to preserve the 
soft sounds of c and g; as, trace, traceable; courage, cour- 
ageous. 

In words ending with ie, e is omitted and * changed into y 
before the termination ing, in order to prevent the doubling 
of i; as, tie, tying; belie, belying. 

E is retained in dye, singe, springe, swinge, tinge, hoe, shoe, 
and toe, before the termination ing; as, dye, dyeing ; shoe, 
shoeing. 

2. In words ending with silent e, e is generally retained on 
receiving a suffix beginning with a consonant ; as, dire, dire- 
f\d; care, careless. 

The following words are exceptions : — Abridgment, acknow- 
ledgment, argument, judgment, duly, truly, awful, nursling, 
wisdom, wholly. 

Words ending with Y. — 1. In words ending with y 
immediately preceded by a consonant, y is changed into ■». 
on receiving one or more suffixed letters or syllables ; as, try, 
tries; lively, liveliest. 



40 EXERCISE. 

Y is not changed into * before the termination ing; as, 
dry, drying; rely, relying. 

2. In words ending with y immediately preceded by a 
vowel, y is retained on receiving one or more suffixed letters 
or syllables; as, money, moneys; joy, joyful; pay, payable. 

Paid from pay, laid from lay, said and saith from say, staid 
from stay, and daily from day, are exceptions. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule for formiDg each of the following 
words : — 

M o D E I, 1. — Suffix ed to tap. 

Tapped. — "Tap" is a monosyllable ending with a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel ; therefore the final consonant is doubled on 
receiving the suffix ed, which begins with a vowel; according to the 
Rule, " The final consonant of a monosyllable, etc." 

2. — Suffix es to try. 

Tries. — " Try" is a word ending with y immediately preceded by a 
consonant; therefore y is changed into i on receiving the suffixed letters 
es; according to the Eule, "In words ending with y immediately pre- 
ceded by a consonant, etc." 

3. — Suffix ly to (fite. 

Duly. — "Due" ls a word ending with silent e; therefore e should be 
retained on receiving the suffix ly, beginning with a consonant; but it is 
dropped, being an exception to the Rule, " In words ending with silent e, 
e is generally retained on receiving a suffix beginning with a consonant." 

Suffix ed to pen, rob, beg, slip, harp, call, hate, remove, dye, 
care, defy, delay, say ; — er to gay, employ, lovely, easy, lodge, 
fihoe, begin, labor; — ing to hnm, cool, scratch, refer, oflTer, sing, 
please, become, belie, singe, falsify, satisfy, destroy, display, 
convey. 

Suffix s or es, as may be required, to prepare, apply, buoy, annoy, 
occupy, survey, notify, comply, espy, stray ; — ly to love, intense, 
U"je, happy, fimny, whole, late, strange ;—es< to admire, supply, 
enjoy, difier, forgive, forget, busy, tardy, ugly, waylay. 



CLASSES OF WORDS — DEFINITIONS CF PARTS, ETC. 41 



^art Su0ni 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of Words, teaclies liow to 
classify them, and shows their changes of form and 
meaning. 

THE CLASSES OF WOEDS. 

Words are divided into nine classes, called Parts 
of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech are the Noun, the Pronouin-, 
the Article, the Adjective, the Verb, the Ad- 
verb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the 
Interjection. 

THE definitions OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing ; 
as, Washington, country, beauty, soul. 

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun ; as, 
"Henry loves his books; he studies his lessons 
well." 

An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is 
used before a noun to limit its meaning; as, The 
star ; a house ; a7i insect. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a 
noun or a pronoun; as, A sweet apple; many books; 
" He is good." 

A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or 



42 EXERCISE. 

state; as, "James runs." — "He does sometliing." 
" I am here." — " The child sleeps." 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, "He is very \ 
industrious, and advances rapidly in his studies." 

A Preposition is a word used before a noun or a i 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding i 
word ; as, " The boy went with his father to the 
library." 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect the words, j 
the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between j 
which it is placed; as, "He is patient and happy, ; 
because he is a Christian." 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to i 
express some emotion of the mind; as, ^A.' Alas! 'i 

E X E R c I s E. — Tell to which fart of speech each word in the follow- I 
ing sentences belongs, and give the reason : — \ 

Mode t,. — " Oh ! how the bright sun pours its beams over hill and vale I" ] 

Oh, — " Oh" is an interjection, because it is a word used merely as an i 
exclamation: — "An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to ex- 
press some emotion of the mind." 

How. — " How" is an adverb, because it is a word used to qualify the 
meaning of the verb pours: — "An Adverb is a word used to qualify a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb." i 

The. — " The" is an article, because it is a word used before the noun ij 
mm, to limit its meaning : — " An Article is the word the, or a or an, which i 
ia placed before a noun to limit its meaning." \ 

Bright. — " Bright" is an adjective, because it is a word used to describe ij 
the noun sun: — "An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun f 
or a pronoun." I 

Sun. — "Sun" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name: — "A 
Noun is a word used as the name of any thing." j 

Pours. — " Pours" is a verb, because it is a word used to assert actiou || 
of sun: — "A Verb ii a word used to assert action, being, or state." jl 



EXEECISE. 43 

Its, — "lia" is a pronoun, because it is a word used in place of the 
uoun syj/Vs: — "A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun." 

Beams. — "Beams" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name: — 
"A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing." 

Over. — "Over" is a preposition, because it is a word used before the 
nouns hill and vale, to show their relation to the verb pours : — " A Pre- 
position is a word used before a noun or a pronoun to show its relation 
to some preceding word." 

Hill. — "Hill" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name: — "A 
Noun is a word used as the name of any thing." 

JLnd. — "And" is a Conjunction, because it is a word used to connect 
the nouns hill and vale: — "A Conjunction is a word used to connect the 
words, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed." 

Vale. — "Vale" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name: — "A 
Noun is a word used as the name of any thing." 

I. The earth is not flat; it is round. 2. Men can sail round the world 
jn ships. 3. The day was hot; so we sat in the cool shade of the trees. 

4. A beautiful picture hung in the window of a print-shop in State Street. 

5. The morning was bright, and at an early hour the driver of the sleigh- 
stage was at the door. 6. Alas ! how we miss the kind words and the 
gentle touch of our dear mother ! ^ 7. Eobinson Crusoe spent many years 
on a lonely island. 8. Sir William Wallace was the son of noble parents; 
he was bom in 1277. 9. Contentment is better than riches. 10. No man 
is truly great unless he is truly good. 

II. Good advice is too often neglected. 12. Industry in brown clothes 
is better than idleness in splendid rags. 13. All the stars were pale and 
dim, because the full moon shone s* brilliantly. 14. The dear old flag, 
with its broad stripes and bright s1ip,rs, floated proudly in the breeze. 
15. Mercy becomes a monarch better than his crown. 16. The thoughts 
of home brought bitter tears to the eyes of the little wanderer. 17. The 
beU rang, and they soon stopped their play and went to bed. 18. 

■ A small but clear stream of water trickled through the crevice, glistened 
along thf thirsty sands for a moment, and then disappeared. 



44 NOUXS — CLASSES OF NOUNS — EXEECISE. 



NOUNS. 



A Noun is a word used as the name of any tiling; 
as, James, Anna, boy, girl, river, truth, 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes; 
Proper and Common. 

A Proper Noun is a word used a§ the name of a] 
particular object or collection of objects, to distin- 
guish it from others of the same class; as, John, 
Troy, Ohio, the Alps. 

Tlie word John is used as the name of a particular perso7il 
to distinguish him from James and George and William, and" 
all other men or boys. 

A Common Noun is a word used as the name of an; 
object or collection of objects of the same class ; as 
man, city, river, mountains. 

The word 7nan does not distinguish John, James, or Henry 
from any other man ; it is a name common to all men. 

A noun is called Complez, when it is formed of two or more 
words not united, used together as one name ; as. Dead Sea, 
CJiief Justice Marshall, Duke of Wellington. 

A noun is called Compound, when it is formed of two or more 
words united, used as one name ; as, statesman, landlord, man- 
of-war. 

A Collective Noun is a word used as the name of a collection 
of beings or of things,regarded as a unit ; as, family, herd, class. 

Exercise I. — Tell to which doss each of the following nouna 
Delongs, and give the reason : — > 

Robert, Robinson Crusoe, islands, crowd, word, Thomas Jef- 
feison, Thomas, month, April, state, New Hampshire, science, 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS — NUMBER — ETC. 45 

giant-killer, Prince of Wales, regiment, base-ball, navy, river, 
tVstor Library, Penobscot, fractions, King Henry, cloud, board, 
grammar, pronoun, Iowa City, the Romans, Rome, legislature, 
the East Indies, johnny-jump-up, panther, printer, noise, senate, 
he-goat, the Prussians, molasses, strawberry, croquet, bookcase. 

Exercise 1 1. — Write five sentences, each containing a common 
noun; — five, each containing 2i proper noun; — five, each containing a col- 
lective noun ; — five, each containing a complex noun ; — and five, each con- 
taining a compound noun. 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

Property, in Grammar, means a peculiar quality- 
belonging to any part of speech. 

Nouns have four properties; Number, Person, 
Gender, and Case. 

NUMBER. 

Number is that property of a noun which denotes 
whether one object or collection of objects is meant, 
or more than one. 

Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular NumlDer denotes one object, or a col- 
lection of objects considered as a unit; as, deshy 
bench, nation, flock. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one object 
or collection of objects; as, desks, benches, nations, 

THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Nouns generally become plural by the suffixing 
of s to the singular; as, sing, home, plur. homes; 
hey, keys; rose, roses; clock, clocks; cameo, cameos. 

This rule always applies to nouns ending with o, u, or y 
immediately preceded by a vowel; as, hay, bays; trio, trios; 
purliei , purlieus , 



46 EXERCISES. 

Nouns ending with ch (not sounded as Tc), g, i\ x or s. 
become plural by the suffixing of es to the singular; as, 
bunch, hunches; gas, gases; sash, sashes; fox, foxes; waltz, 
waltzes. 

Nouns ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, 
become plural by the change of y into i and the suffixing of 
es; as, study, studies; army, armies. 

Some nouns ending with single / or/e, become plural by 
the change of/ into v and the suffixing of es; as, life, lives; 
thief thieves. 

These nouns are heef calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self sheaf 
shelf thief, wolf, knife, life, wife. 

Other nouns ending with single / or/e, become plural by 
the general rule; but wharf has two forms of .he plural, 
wharfs and wharves. 

Nouns ending with jf, become plural by the general rule; 
as, muff, miffs; but staff, meaning a cane, has staves for the 
plural ; its compounds, however, become plural by the suffix- 
ing of s only; as, flagstaffs, distaffs. 

Nouns ending with o preceded by a consonant, differ in the 
formation of the plural. Some become plural by the suffix- 
ing of es; as, echo, echoes; hero, heroes; — others by the suffix- 
ing of s only; as, solo, solos; piano, pianos. 

The following nouns liave irregular plurals: — ^ 

Sing. Plur. 

Goose, geese. 
Louse, lice. 
Mouse, mice. 

REMARKS. 

Such nouns as goodness, gold, geometry, and wisdom, are 
always in the singular. 

Such nouns as ashes, cattle, drugs, manners, morals, oats, 
scissors, thanks, and victuals, are plural only. 

Such nouns as deer, fish, sheep, and trout, have the same 
form in the plural as in the singular. 



Sing. 

Man, 


Plur. 

men. 


Sing. 

Foot, 


Plur. 

feet. 


Child, 


children. 


Tooth, 


teeth. 


Woman, 


women. 


Ox, 


oxen. 



3 



EXERCISES. 47 

Exercise I. — Apply the rule for farming the p. .iral of each of the 
following nouns : — 

Mod Eli. — Lady. — The plural of lady is ladies. 

"Lady" is a noun ending with y immediately preceded by the con- 
sonant d; therefore the plural is formed by the change of y into i and the 
suffixing of es, according to the Eule, "Nouns ending with y imme- 
diately preceded by a consonant, become plural by the change of y into i 
and the suffixing of es." 

Mass, sky, piano, body, ditch, wolf, chintz, knife, tr^'o, box, 
wish, calf, scarf, watch, muff, echo, miss, home, pulley, hoof, 
colony, delay, solo, folly, turkey, grief, scratch, buoy, block, 
gash, loss, coach, sheaf, life, wharf, hero, governess, peach 
alley, strife, studio. 

Exercise 1 1. — Spell the singular of each of the following nouns : — 

Beaus, wives, countesses, fathers, geese, horses, lasses, ladies, 
misses, witches, men, cargoes, priests, potatoes, mottoes, paths, 
cameos, tipstaffs, wharves, fifes, beeves, bunches, cabbages, mice, 
baronesses, mementos, grottos, teeth. 

ExiERCiSE III. — JSTame each noun in the following sentences, the 
doss to which it belongs, and its number, and give the reasons : — 

Mode l. — " How high the birds soar !" 

Birds. — "Birds" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name; it is 
a common noun, because it is a word used as the name of any object or 
collection of objects of the same class; it is in the plural number, be- 
cause it denotes more than one object. 

1. There are often many ways of doing the same thing. 2. Mild 
words disarm anger. 3. The army passed over the river on pontoon 
bridges. 4. Benjamin West made his first drawings with charcoal. 5, 
Vast herds of buffaloes once roamed over the fertile prairies of Illinois. 
6. The men obeyed his command, and, before it was day, marched into 
the town. 7. The name of Eobert Bruce is known to many a school- 
boy. 8. The artist spent many months at his easel. 9. Early in the 
morning the fleet left the harbor of New York. 10. In the neighbor^ 
hood was a wild stream, which wound among the hills for many miles. 

Exercise IV. — Write ten sentences, each containing one noun or 
more in the singular number: — ten, each contain;' ug one noun or more 
in the plural. 



48 PEESON — EXERCISES. 

PERSON. 

Person is that property of a noun whicli distin- 
gnislies the speaker or writer, the person or thing 
addressed, and the person or thing mentioned. 

Nouns have three persons; the First, the Second, 
and the Third. 

The First Person is that which denotes the speaker 
or writer; as, "I, James, will go." 

The Second Person is that which denotes the per- 
son or thing addressed; as, ''■James will 30U go?" 

The Third Person is that which denotes the person or 
thing mentioned; as, '■'James will go." — ''Leaves fall.' 

Nouns are rarely used in the first person: in the majority 
of sentences nouns are in the third person. 

Exercise I. — Tell to which dass each noun in the following sen- 
tences belongs ; tell its number and its person, and give the reasons : — 

Model. — "Frank, come to me presently." 

Frank. — " Frank" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name ; it is 
a proper noun, because it is a word used as the name of a particular 
object to distinguish it from others of the same class; it is in the singu- 
lar number, because it denotes but one object; it is in the second per- 
son, because it denotes the person addressed. 

1. The trees dipped their branches into the stream. 2. Little hands 
gathered the violets and the honeysuckles. 3. Oh ! mother, to-morrow 
will be the first of May. 4. Quakers, or Friends, will not take an oath. 
5. I, James, do promise to perform all of my duties faithfully. 6. What 
did your friend say, Charl&s, when you delivered the note? 7. At an 
earlv hour the group of children were ready to start. 8. Boys, let me 
entreat you to avoid falsehood and profanity. 9. The father and his 
sons were walking through the green fields. 10. Scholars, how many of 
you try to please your teacher by obeying her in all things ? 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the 
first person ; — five, sach containing a noun in the second person ; — five, 
each CO itaining on; noun or more in the third person. 



GENDEE. 



49 



GENDER. 

Gender is that property of nouns which distin- 
guishes them in regard to sex. 

In grammar, the term gender is applied to words used as 
the names of objects; just as in nature the term sex is ap- 
plied to those objects themselves. 

Nouns have three genders; the Masculine, the 
Feminine, and the Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender is that which denotes beings 
of the male sex ; as, father, king, stag. 

The Feminine Gender is that which denotes beings 
of the female sex; as, mother, queen, hind. 

The Neuter Gender is that which denotes objects that 
are without sex ; as, table, booh, mountain, wisdom. 

Some nouns, such as parent, child, friend, denote beings 
that may be either male or female ; they are therefore either 
of the masculine or of the feminine gender. 

In the following list, the masculine and the feminine gen- 
der are distinguished by the use of different words : — 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Beau, 


belle. 


King, 


queen. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Male, 


female. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Master, 


miss, mistress 


Cock, 


hen. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Eam, 


ewe. 


Father, 


mother. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Friar, monk, 


nun. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Wizard, 


witch. 



50 CASE. 

INlany nouns of the feminine gender are formed from the 
masculine by suffixing ess, ine, etc.; as, masc. poet, fern. 
poetess; hero, heroine; don, donna; etc. 

Exercise I. — Mention each noun in the following sentences, and 
the class to which it belongs; also its number, person, and gender, and 
give the reasons : — 

Mode l. — " How sweet the flowers smell !" 

Flowers. — "Flowers" is a noun, because it is a word used as a name; it 
is a common noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the 
same class; it is in the plural number, because it denotes more than 
one object; it is in the third person, because it denotes the things men- 
tioned; it is of the neuter gender, because it denotes objects that are 
without sex. 

1. The gardener gathered several flowers for him. 2. The horse with 
the boy upon his back walked slowly up the hill. 3. Father, where do 
the bees find the wax to make their cells? 4. The water flowed slowly 
between the banks. 5. Herbert sat by the small fire at home, with liis 
head resting upon his hands. 6. "Why, man, what ails you ? you look as 
pale as a sheet. 7. A painter could not have wished for a better model. 

8. When Helen reached the school, all the pupils had taken their seats. 

9. The clouds moved slowly across the blue vault of heaven. 10. A 
bold heart and a strong arm will carry us through difficulties. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences, each containing one noun or 
more in the masculine gender; — ten, each containing one or more in 
the feminine gender ;- -ten, each containing one or more in the neuter 
gender. 

CASE. 

Case is that property of nouns whicli distinguislies 
their relations to other words. 

Nouns have three eases; the Nominative, the 
Possessive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case is that which usually denotes 
the subject of a verb; as, "The boy reads." 

The subject of a verb is that of which something is either 
said or asserted. 



THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 51 

The Possessive Case is tliat wKicli usually denotes 
possession or origin ; as, The boy's book ; Milton's 
poems. 

Tlie Objective Case is that which usually denotes 
the object of a verb, or of a preposition; as, "The 
boy strttck his sister." — "The apple is sweet to the 
taste." 

The object of a verb is that upon which the action asserted 
by the verb is exerted. The object of a preposition is the 
object of the relation shown by the preposition. 

THE FORMS OF THE CASES. 

The nominative case and the objective are alike 
in form. They are distinguished from each other 
by their relations to other words. 

The possessive case may always be known by its 
form. 

The possessive case in the singular number is 
usually formed by suffixing the apostrophe and s 
('s) to the nominative singular; as, nom. day, poss. 
day's. 

The possessive case in the plural number is 
formed by suffixing the apostrophe only to the 
nominative plural when the nominative plural ends 
with s, and by suffixing both the apostrophe and 
s when the nominative plural does not end with s. 

Thus, nom. days, poss. days'; nom. men, poss. men's. 

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The Declension of nouns is the regular arrange- 
ment of their numbers and cases. 



52 EXEECISE — SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 







EXAMPLES OP DECLENSION. 






- 




Singular, 






Now^ 


Money, 


Ox, 


Sky, James, 


Wife, 


Glass, 


Poss. 


money's, 


ox's, 


sky's, James's, 


wife's, 


glass's, 


Obj. 


money ; 


ox; 


sky ; James ; 
Plural. 


•wife; 


glass; 


Norn. 


moneys, 


oxen, 


skies, Jameses, 


wives, 


glasses, 


Poss. 


moneys', 


oxen's 


, skies', Jameses' 


wives'. 


glasses', 1 
glasses. ' 


Obj. 


moneys. 


oxen. 


skies. Jameses, 


wives. 



Exercise. — Decline each of the following nouns: — 
Man, yard, lady, peach, bay, goose, mouse, ladle, knife, 
miss, Charles, year, box, army, sash, study, thief, muff, fife, j 
buffalo, chUd, page, actor, block, folio, waltz, brush, body 
loaf, staff (a stick), chimney, salesman. 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 

The subject of a verb may be known by asking the ques- 
tion formed by placing who or what before the verb; the 
answer to the question is the subject. 

Thus, take the sentence, " John studies his lesson." Who 
studies? The answer is, John. Hence John L" the subject 
of the verb studies, and therefore is in the nominative case. 

The object of a verb or of a preposition may be known by 
asking the question formed by placing whom or what after 
the verb or the preposition : the answer to the question will 
be the object. ' 

Thus, " Henry studies grammar." Studies iw^af.? Gram- 
mar. Grammar is the object of the action asserted or ex- 
pressed by the verb studies, and therefore is in the objective 
case. 

"He spoke to his teacher." To vjhomf To teacher. Hence 
teacher is the object of the relation shown by the preposition 
to, and therefore is in the objective case. 

Exercise I. — Name the nouns in the nominative, and those Ie the 
ebjective case in the following sentences, and give the reasons: — 



PAESiNa. 53 

1. The bad boy struck the dog. 2. The deer ran to the hills, 3. Thff 
men cut down the trees. 4. The stars shone brightly in the qu et sky. 
5. Only a cruel person will do harm to others. 6. A tall, kind-looking 
man stepped up to the stranger. 7. Tall maples crowned the summit 
of the hill. 8. The day for the commencement arrived, and they pre- 
pared to attend. 9. The exercises were long and tiresome, and we ^arpxe 
glad when they came to a close. 10. In 1814, the city of Washington was 
captured by a British army under General Eoss, 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences, each containing one noun or 
more in the nominative case ; — ten, each containing one or more in thp 
possessive; — ten, each containing one or more in the objective. 

PARSING. 

To Parse means to tell to what parts of speech words belong, 
to name their properties and relations, and to give the rules 
which apply to them. 

As the rules are given in Syntax only, they may be omitted 
at present in parsing. 

In parsing, it is well to name (1) the word to be parsed; 
(2) the word or the words with which it is grammatically 
connected ; and (3) its properties, relations, etc. 

Exercise. — Parse each noun in the following sentences: — 
Model. — " The boys found a bird's nest in the grove." 
Boys. — BojafouTid. — "Boys" is a noun, "A Noun is a word used as 
the name of any thing"; — a common noun, because it is used as the name 
of any collection of objects of the same class ; — in the plural number, 
because it denotes more than one object; — in the third person, because 
it denotes the persons mentioned; — of the masculine gender, because 
it denotes beings of the male sex; — in the nominative case, because 
it is the subject of the Yerb found. 

Bird^s. — Bird's nest. — "Bird's" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc." ; — 
a common noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the 
same class ; — in the singular number, because it denotes one object ; — 
in the third person, because it denotes the being mentioned ; — of the 
masculine or the feminine gender, because it denotes a being of the male 
or of the female sex ; — in the possessive case, because it denotes possession- 
NesU — Found nest. — "Nest" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc." ;— a 



64 EXERCISE — PRONOUNS. 

common nomi, b'Hiause it is used as the name of any object of the same 
class; — in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the 
third person, because it denotes the thing mentioned ; — of the neuter 
gender, because it denotes an object without sex ; — in the objective case, 
because it is the object of the action asserted or expressed by the verb 
found. 

Grove. — In grove. — " Grove" is a noun, " A Noun is a word, etc." ; — a 
common noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same 
class; — in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the 
third person, because it denotes the thing mentioned ; — of the neuter 
gender, because it denotes an object without sex; — in the objective case, 
because it is the object of the relation shown by the preposition in. 

1. Virginia was settled at Jamestown. 2. The wreck was washed upon 
the shore. 3. The streams overflowed their banks. 4. A gloomy house 
stood by the roadside. 5. Bleak winds whistled through the pines around 
the cabin. 6. The broad flakes of snow soon hid the ground from view. 

7. An ice-boat was rigged, and the wind blew the party across the pond. 

8. Travelers suflTer from heat and thirst as they cross the desert. 9. The 
Indians' hunting grounds are now cultivated. 10. The lion's roar echoed 
far and wide through the forest. 11. The moments of youth are more pre- 
cious than rubies are. 12. Grace Darling aided her father in saving the 
lives of many shipwrecked persons. 13. The Falls of St. Anthony are in 
the Mississippi River. 14. The council-fires of the red men then blazed 
in the forests which have since bowed before the axe of the settler. 15. 
The old man's advice was rejected by the thoughtless youth. 



PRONOUl^S. 



A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun ; as, 
"Thomas deserves praise, for he has recited his 
lessons well." 

In this sentence the word he is used in place of the noun 
Thomas, and his in place of the noun Thomas's; the words he 
and his are therefore called pronouns, — a word which mean? 
"for nouns." 



CLASSES OF PEONOUNS. 55 

A pronoun is used to avoid an unpleasant repe tiiion of a noun. 

The noun for which a pronoun is used is called the ante- 
cedent of the pronoun, because it generally precedes the pro- 
noun, and the latter is said to represent its antecedent. 

In the sentence, " Thomas has recited his lessons," the noun 
Thomas is the antecedent of the pronoun his, and the pronoun 
represents its antecedent Thomas. 

PROPERTIES QF PRONOUNS. 

As 'pronouns represent nouns, they have number ^ 
person, gender, and case, as nouns have. They 
have also declension. 

The number, the person, and the gender of a pronoun are 
always the same as those of the noun which it represents, but 
the case may be different. 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 
Pronouns are divided into three classes; Per-. 
Bonal, Pelative, and Interrogative. 

PERSONAL PRONOUlSrS. 

A Personal Pronoun is one that shows by its form 
the person of the noun which it represents. 

Personal pronouns are Simple or Compound. 
■ The Simple Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, 
and it, and their variations in the singular and in 
the plural. 

/ is in the first person, and of the masculine or 
of the feminine gender. 

Thou is in the second person, masculine or femi- 
nine gender. 

He is in the third person, masculine gender: she 
is in the third person, feminine gender : it is in the 
third person, neuter gender. 



56 



COMPOUND PEESONAL lEONOUNS. 



THE DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
Singular. 



First Person. 


Second Person. 




Third Person. 




» JIasc. or Fern. 


Masc. or Fern. 


Masc. 




Fern. 


Ifeut. 


Kom. I, 


Thou, 


He, 




She, 


It, 


Poss. my, or 


thy, or 


his. 




her, or 


its, 


mine, 


thine, 






hers. 




Ohj. me ; 


thee; 


him; 
Plural 




her; 


it; 


Nom. we, 


you, or ye, 


they. 




they, 


they. 


Poss. our, or 


your, or 


their, 


or 


their, or 


their, or 


ours, 


yours, 


theirs, 


theirs. 


theirs, 


Ohj. us. 


you. 


them. 




them. 


them. , 



REMARKS. 

In the possessive case, viy, thy, her, our, your, their, are used 
when the noun denoting the thing possessed is mentioned, and 
mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, when it is omitted; as, 
"This work is mine." — "This is my work." 

The apostrophe (') should never be used in writing the fol- 
lowing forms of pronouns in the possessive case: hers, its, ours, 
yours, theirs; as, " It is yours," not your's. 

In the singular number, second person, the plural forms 
you, your, and yours, are commonly used, though but one indi- 
vidual is addressed ; as, " John, have you studied your lesson?" 

The form thou is used in prayers to God, in solemn lan- 
guage, and in poetry. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by subjoin- 
ing in the singular the word self to the simple per- 
sonal pronouns my, thy, him, her, and it; and in the 
plural, the word selves to our, your, and them. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself 
thyself, himself, herself and itself, and their plural 
forms ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 



EEMARKS — EXEECISES. 57 

THE DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND PEKSONAL 1EONC0NS. 
Singular. 



First Person. 


Sex:ond Persm 




Third Person. 




Mage, or Fern. 


ilasc. or Fern. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


m-uter. 


Nora. Myself, 


Thyself, 


Himself, 


Herself, 


Itself. 


Poss. 











Obj. myself; thyself; himself; herself; itself; 

Plural. 
Norn, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves, 

Poss. 

Obj. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves. 

The compound personal pronouns have no form for the 
possessive case, either in the singular or in the plural. 

Exercise I. — Tell the number, the person, the gender, and the case 
of each of the following pronouns : — 

Ours, thee, himself, it, I, you, herself, he, we, thyself, 
they, myself, your, thine, ourselves, thou, us, themselves, my, 
its, itself, mine, ours. 

Exercise 1 1. — Write six sentences, containing different pronouns 
in the first person ; — six, containing different pronouns in the second pei- 
Bon ; — twelve, contaiaing different pronouns in the third person. 

Exercise III. — Parse the personal pronouns in the following sen- 



Mo D E I,. — " The hoy lost his hooks and could not find them." 

His.— {Boy) his books. — "His" is a personal pronoun, "A Personal 
Pronoun is one, etc." ; — it is in the singular number, third person, and 
of the masculine gender, because the noun boy, which it represents, is ; — 
in the possessive case, because it denotes possession. 

Them. — Ouuld find them (books). — "Them" is a personal pronoun, "A 
Personal Pronoun is one, etc." ; — ^it is in the plural number, third per- 
son, and of the neuter gender, because the noun books, which it repre- 
sents, is ; — ^in the objective case, because it is the object of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb could find. 

1. Make the best of life, for it is short. 2. Indians are treacherous in 
their character. 3. James struck his brother with his fist. 4. There 
goes Mary with her satchel of books. 5. Harry has a little carriage, and 
he often rides in it, 6. The old hen calls her young ones when she finds 



68 EELATIVE PEO-SrOUNS. 

a worm for thera. 7. Pet rabbits are fond of play, and thej often chase 
each other for hours at a time. 8. A scomer seeketh wisdom, and findeth 
it not. 9. The snow spreads its white sheet over the whole country. 10. 
Martha fancied herself slighted. 11. Come, we mnst now commence our 
studies. 12. The soldiers threw themselves upon the ground, and the balls 
passed over their heads. 
Exercise I V. — Parse also the nouns in the preceding sentences. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A Relative Pronoun is one wMcli relates directly to 
some preceding noun or pronoun; as, ^^ Thomas, 
who came late, was not admitted." — '^He who wins, 
may laugh." 

The noun or the pronoun to which a relative pronoun re- 
lates is called its antecedent, because it is generally placed 
before the relative. 

Relative Pronouns have no separate forms to distinguish 
the dijETerent persons, as the personal pronouns have. The 
person is determined by the antecedent, with which a rela- 
tive always agrees in number, person, and gender. 

Relative pronouns are of two kinds; Simple and 
Compound. 

SIMPLE EELATIVES. 

The Simple Eelative Pronouns are who, which, what, 
and that. 

THE DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

That, 
that: 



that, 
that. 







Singular. 




Nom. 


Who, 


Which, 


What, 


Poss. 


whose. 


Avhose, 




Ohj. 


whom; 


which ; 

Plural. 


what; 


Nom. 


who, 


which, 


what, 


Poss. 


whose, 


whose, 




Ohj. 


whom. 


which. 


what. 



COMPOUND EELATIVES. 59 

REMARKS. 

Who is used in referring to persons; as, "Elizabtth, who 
was Queen of England, died in 1603." 

Which is used in referring to inferior animals and to things 
without life ; as, " The deer which was killed." — " The flower 
which was plucked." 

What is used in referring to things only. It is always of 
the neuter gender. 

What is equivalent to the thing which (or that which) in the 
singular, and to the things which (or those which) in the plural. 

Thus, " He obtained what he wanted," in the singular means, 
" He obtained the thing which he wanted ;" and in the plural, 
"He obtained the things which he wanted." 

That is sometimes used in referring to persons, animals, or 
things ; as, " The same person that I knew." — " The last book that 
was bought." 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

The Compound Relative Pi?onoiins are formed by sub- 
joining the word ever or soever to the simple rela- 
tives who, which, and what. 

The Compound Relatives are whoever, whosoever, 
V^hichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

THE DECLENSION OP THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Whoever, whosever, whomever, 

Whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

Whichever, whichever. 

Whichsoever, whichsoever. 

Whatever, whatever. 

Whatsoever, ■ whatsoever. 

A compound relative includes, in meaning, an antecedent 
and a simple relative. Whoever and whosoever mean any one 
who ; whichever and whichsoever mean any one which ; whatever 
and whatsoever mean any thing which, or all things which. 



60 ESTTEEEOGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one used to ask a ques- 
tion; as, "Who discovered America?" — "Whose 
book have you?" — " Who7n did you meet?" 

The Interrogatives are who, which, and what. 
They are declined like the simple relatives. 

Who is used in asking about persons ; as, " Who banished 
Napoleon?" — "Who invented gunpowder?" 

Which and what are used in asking about persons, animals, 
or things ; as, " Which of the men escaped ?" — " Which of the 
norses won the race?" — " What is he? A poet." 

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent ; but refers to 
some word in the answer, called the subsequent, with which it 
agrees in number, person, and gender ; as, " Who invented the 
telegraph? Morse." 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences, containing simple relative 
pronouns ; — ten, containing compound relative pronouns ; — ten, contain- 
ing interrogatives. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the relative and the interrogative pronouns in 
the following sentences : — 

Model s. — 1. " Herbert, who skated well, glided swiftly over the ice." 

Who. — (Herbert) who skated. — " Who" is a relative pronovm, "A Rela- 
tive Pronoun is one, etc." ; it is in the singular number, third person, 
and of the masc. gender, because its antecedent Herbert, to which it re- 
lates, is ; — in the nom. case, because it is the subject of the verb skated. 

2. " Whose flower is this ? Mary's." 

Whose. — {Mary's) whose flower. — "Whose" is an interrogative pro- 
noun, " An Interrogative Pronoun is, etc." ; it is in the sing, number, third 
person, and of the fern, gender, because its subsequent {Mary's) is, with 
which it agrees; — in the poss. case, because it denotes possession. 

1. Remember the good advice which is given to you. 2. All the 
money that was given to him was lost. 3. The robbers who stopped 
him, threatened to take his life. 4. Who is your neighbor? Every 
man. 5. The wren, which perched on the branch, poured forth his melody 

6. The panther, which had been crouching, now prepared for a spring. 

7. Two young men, who were friends, set out to travel in distant lands. 



AETICLES. 61 

8, Wyoming Valley, wMch is in Pennsylvania, is noteu for its beauty, 

9. The gardener, whose flowers we admired, plucked a few for us. 10. 
Great masses, which carry all before them, rush doAvn the mountain-side. 
11. To whom was the message sent? To his brother. 12. He who 
despises little things, will never attain to great things. 

ExEKClSE II I. — Parse the nouns and the personal pronouns in the 
preceding sentences. 



ARTICLES. 



An Article is tlie word the, or a or an, wliich is 
used before a noun to limit its meaning; as, " The 
sun, the earth; an eagle, a man. 

There are two articles; The, and A or An. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it shows 
that some object or collection of objects is referred 
to in a definite manner ; as. The army, the cities. 

In the expression, "the army," the shows that a particular 
army is meant; it limits the idea expressed by the word 
army to some particular object. 

A is called the Indefinite Article, because it shows 
that an object is referred to in an indefinite manner; 
as, A battle, an army, a book. 

In the expression, " a battle," a shows that no particular 
battle is meant ; it does not limit the idea expressed by the 
word battle to any particular battle. 

A and an are the same in meaning, but they differ in use. 

An is used before words which, when uttered, begin with a 
vowel sound ; as. An acorn, an honor. 

A is used before words which, when uttered, begin with a 
consonant sound ; as, A watch, a unit, a youth. 

Exercise I. — TeU before which of the following words a should 
be used, and before which an should be used, and give the reasons : — 



62 ADJECTIVES — CL.^SSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Indian, oyster, onion, union, hundred, humble, youth, onlefj 
use, icicle, history, European, uncle, idea, age, hero, height^ 
truth, eye, humane, eagle, dream. 

Exercise 1 1. — Write ten sentences, each containing the indefinite 
article a or an properly used. 

Exercise III. — Parse the articles in the following sentences:— 

Model. — "The crow built its nest in a high tree." 

The. — The crow. — " The" is an article, "An Article is the word, etc." ; 
it is the definite article, because it refers to the noun croiv in a definite 
or particular manner. 

A. — A tree. — " A" is an article, " An Article is the word, etc." ; — it ig 
the indefinite article, because it refers to the noun tree in an indefinite 
manner. 

1. The scholars are at play on the lawn. 2. An intemperate person 
leads an unhappy life. 3. A large vessel struck upon the rocks. 4. A 
famine brought suffering upon the people. 5. An honest intention is 
good, but an honest act is better. 6. The page of his book was blotted. 
7. The hunter shot a deer as it fed in an open plain. 

Exercise IV. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the pre- 
ceding sentences. 



ADJECTIVES. 



An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit 
a noun or a pronoun; as, JRipe apples; three wise 
men; unhapjyy me. 

Thus, in the sentence, " Ripe apples fall," ripe denotes the 
condition of the apples that fall. The word ripe is therefore 
an adjective describing the noun apples. 

In the sentence, " Three men came," three limits the nwrn- 
her of men that came. The word three is therefore an ad- 
jective limiting the noun men. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives may be divided into the following 
classes : Proper, Common, Numeral, and Pronominal. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTirES. 03 

A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper 
noun; as, American, English, Newtonian. 

A Common Adjective is one which describes or limits 
a noun or a pronoun, but whicli is not derived from 
a proper noun ; as, honest, numerous, perfect. 

A Numeral Adjective is one which denotes a definite 
number; as, two, third, single. 

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds; Cardinal, Ordinal, 
and Multiplicative. 

The Cardinals denote how many; as, nine, ninety. 

The Ordinals denote order; as, ninth, ninetieth. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many fold; as, single, double 
or twofold, triple or threefold. 

REMARKS. 

Adjectives, like nouns, may be compound in form ; as, Sweet- 
scented clover ; home-made bread ; the Anglo-Saxon race. 

Most numeral adjectives may be regarded as complex in 
form; as. One hundred and nine dollars; the two hundred and 
tenth page. 

A noun becomes an adjective when it is used to describe 
another noun ; as, Croton water, gold chain, iron castings. 

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and, as such, they 
have all the properties of nouns ; as, " The good will be re- 
warded." — " We respect our superiors." 

ExEKCiSE I. — Write ten sentences, containing proper adjectives; 
— ten, containing common adjectives ; — ten, containing numerals. 

Exercise 1 1. — Name the adjectives in the following sentences, tell 
to which class each belongs, and give the reasons : — 

Mode i,. — " The telegraph is an American invention." 

American. — "American" is an adjective, because it describes the noun 
invention; it is a proper adjective, because it is derived from the proper 
noun America. 

1. Four heavy wagons passed along the street. 2. The red sr^uirrel is 
a blithe creature. 3. He leaps among the topmost brandies of the 
grea*; oak. 4. The brutal murderer had a low, narrow, and flat fore- 
6 



64 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIViSS. 

head. 5. The beautiful landscape was spread out like a blight picture 
before us. 6. The Indian chief glared at him with a savage scowL 
7. Our white-haired prophet of the Great Spirit rebuked him. 8. 
Kind worut. are light-winged messengers that soften the hardest hearts. 
9. Eemember that a heedless, careless word may cause a bitter heart- 
pang. 10. James Monroe, the fifth President of the United States, died 
on the fifty-fifth anniversary of American Independence. 11. Many a 
poor, idle, miserable, pitiable outcastowes his wretchedness to strong drink. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A Pronominal Adjective is one which either limits a 
noun mentioned, or represents a noun understood ; 
as, ^^This task is difficult." — "This is a difficult task." 

In the first example, this " limits" the noun tash, and is 
used as an adjective; in the second, this "represents" the noun 
task, and is used as a pronoun. 

Pronominal adjectives are of three kinds; Dis- 
tributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

The Distributive Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
because they limit or represent the names of objects 
taken sejDarately or singly. 

The principal distributives are each, every, either y 
and neither. 

The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
because they limit or represent the names of ob- 
jects in a definite or particular manner. 

The principal demonstratives are this, that, these, 
and those. 

The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives are so called be- 
cause they limit or represent the names of objects 
in an indefinite manner. 

The principal indefinites are all, another, any, 
none, one, other, some, such. 



COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 65 

The following may also be classed among the proLominal 
adjectives: both, enough, few, former, latter, little, less, least, 
much, many, more, most, same, several, and a few others. 

Which and what, and their compounds, are pronominal ad- 
jectives when used to limit nouns; as, "The sun gives light 
by day ; which fact is obvious." 

Which and what, and their compounds, are interrogative 
pronominal adjectives when placed before nouns to ask ques- 
tions; as, " TT/ia^ books have you lost?" — "Which question do 
you not understand?" 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences, containing different distribu- 
tives; — ten, containing different demonstratives; — ten, containing dif- 
ferent indefinites. 

ExEJBCiSE 1 1. — Name the ■pronominal adjectives in the following 
sentences, tell to which doss each belongs, and give the reasons : — 

Model. — "This problem is less difScult than that is." 

This. — " This" is a pronominal adjective, because it limits the noun 
problem; it is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, because it limits the 
name of an object in a definite manner. 

That. — " That" is a pronominal adjective, because it represents the noun 
problem ; it is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, because it represents the 
name of an object in a definite manner. 

1. Every man has some good qualities. 2. The same duties were ex- 
pected of each. 3. They lay down to sleep, each clasping the other in 
Ms arms. 4. Every spot to which these little ones would probably have 
strayed, was searched. 5. Neither statement seemed true, but, as no other 
was offered in its place, we were obliged to accept it. 6. Few of ua do 
what we are able to do. 7. In such a peaceful village there was no 
need of those precautions. 8. Enough can not be done to repay his 
kindness. 9. O, what agony filled the heart of the mother ! 10. The 
two runners started; each, without any effort, kept by the side of the 
other until near the end of the race, when both put forth their utmost 
energies to win. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Many adjectives, chiefly the common adjectives, 
are capable of Comparison, 



66 roEMATioN or compaeatives and supeelatives. 

The Comparison of an adjective is the changes of 
its form to denote different degrees of quality. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; the 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive Degree is that form of an adjective 
which is used to denote simply a quality; as, wise, 
happy, small. 

The Comparative Degree is that form of an adjective 
which is used to denote a higher or a lower quality 
than the positive ; as, wiser, happier, smaller. 

The Superlative Degree is that form of an adjective 
which is used to denote the highest or the lowest 
quality of all compared; as, wisest, happiest, smallest. 

THE formation OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared 
by suffixing to the positive er to form the compara- 
tive, and est to form the superlative. 

Thus, pos. siveet, comp. sweeter, sup. sweetest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are gene- 
rally compared by placing before the positive more 
or less to form the comjDarative, and most or least to 
form the superlative. 

Thus, pos. truthful, comp. more truthful, sup. most truthful; 
pos. pleasant, comp. less pleasant, sup. least pleasant. 

Dissyllables ending with y or e are generally 
compared by suffixing to the positive er to form the 
comparative, and est to form the superlative. 

Thus, pos. lovely, comp. lovelier, sup. loveliest; pos. simpCe, 
comp. simpler, sup. shn 



lEEEGULAE COMPAELSON — EXEECISES. 



67 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



The following adjectives are compared irregu- 
larly : — 



Positive. 

Good, 


Comparative. 

better. 


Superlative. 

best. 


Bad, evil, or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Much, or many, 
Little, 


more, 

less, 


most, 
least. 



Superlative. 

sarest, n 
latest, last, 
oldest, eldest. 



The following are compared both regularly and 
irregularly : — 

Positive. Comparative. 

Near, nearer. 

Late, later, latter, 

Old, older, elder. 

Remark. — Numeral adjectives, most proper and pronomi- 
nal adjectives, those denoting material, position, or shape, and 
a few others, such as whole, universal, exact, supreme, etc., by 
reason of their use and meaning, are not compared. 

Exercise I. — Compare sucli of the following adjectives as admit 
comparison : — 

Able, ill, sweet, humble, pleasant, juicy, sour, soft, generous, 
few, handsome, dry, many, certain, old, round, late, acceptable, 
thoughtless, lovely, warm, timid, diligent, cheerful, brave, tough, 
ill-mannered, universal, supreme, good-natured, perfect, English, 
American, sad, evil-minded, pre^fiirable. 

Exercise II. — Use adjectives before the following nouns, and tell to 
what class each adjective belongs : — 

Sun, moon, nation, army, navy, prairie, rock, tree, lake, 
river, soldiers, commander, industry, obedience, happiness, war, 
books, face, pride, home, life, death, tyrant, pleasure, mountain, 
valley, ocean, mind, tiger, deer, rose, Hly, Franklin, Napoleon. 

Exercise III. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : — 

Models. — "Two faithful friends were they." 

Two. — ^Two friends. — " Two" is a numeral adjective, "A Numeral Ad- 



68 EXERCISES — VERBS. 

jective is one, etc." ; — cardinal, because it denotes how mmj it can not 
be compared ; it limits the noun friends. 

Faithful: — Faithful /?-te?ids. — "Faithful" is an adjective, "An Adjective 
is a word, etc." ; — it can be compared (pos. faithful, comp. more faithful, 
Bup. most faithful) ; — in the positive degree ; it describes the noun friends. 

2. — " This fact is less important than that is." 

This. — Thip /act.— "This" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, 
"The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives are so called, etc."; it can 
not be compared ; it limits the noun fact. 

That. — That {fact) is. — " That" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, 
" The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives, etc." ; — in this sentence it 
represents the noun fact; it is therefore in the singular number, third 
person, and of the neuter gender; — in the nominative case, because it is 
the subject of the verb is. 

1. Tall houses make the street gloomy. 2. The true hero appears in the 
great, wise man of duty. 3. A little flower sprang up amidst the coarse 
weeds of a long-neglected garden. 4. The plant raised its beautiful head, 
and its delicate buds burst forth in gladness. 5. Autumn winds strew 
the ground with a soft carpet of leaves. 6. An avaricious man ueea 
every efibrt to make money, but he can not enjoy his ill-gotten wealth. 7. 
These wishes had long been indulged. 8. Crusoe passed many years on 
that desert island. 9. All honorable means should be used to advance. 
10. More than four thousand years have passed since this world was cre- 
ated. 11. Either course is better than remaining in idleness. 12. Shak- 
speare stands above all other poets, above all other human writers. 

Exercise I V. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, and the articles in 
the preceding sentences. 



VERBS. 



A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or 
state; as," James ri^Tis." — "I am here." — "He sleeps.'* 

In these sentences, nms asserts action of the subject James; 
am asserts being of the subject I; and sleeps asserts state of the 
Bubject he; — runs, am, and sleeps are therefore verbs. 

Verbs are the most important words in the language, be- 



CLASSES OF VEEBS ACCOEDING TO MEANING. 69 

cause no sentence can be made to express complete sense 
without the use of a verb. 

E X E RC I s E. — Name the verbs and their subjects in the following sen- 
tence?, and give the reasons : — 
. Mode l. — " James studies diligently." 

Studies. — James studies. — "Studies" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; 
it is a verb because it asserts action. Its subject is James, because the 
action expressed by the verb is asserted of James. 

1. The birds fly. 2. John is here. 3. The moonbeams rest upon the 
plain. 4. Flowers bloom by the house. 5. It rains fast. 6. She whis- 
pered in low tones. 7. Winter passed, and spring came. 8. How far it 
flew ! 9. The moon now rose. 1 0. The whole crew perished. 11. Farmers 
cultivate the ground. 12. Misfortune comes to all. 13. He followed 
good examples. 14. He lost his hold, and fell. 15. Sword clashed against 
sword. 16. With the spring his health returned. 17. I remember it well. 
18. All consented to the plan. 19. A wood lire blazed upon the hearth. 

CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO MEANING. 

Verbs are divided into two classes, according to 
tlieir use or meaning ; Transitive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one which has an object, or 
which requires an object to complete the sense. 

Thus, " He saw the eagle." — " The earth hath bubbles, as 
the water has {bubbles)." 

An Intransitive Verb is one which has no object, or 
which does not require an object to complete the 
sense. 

Thus, " Birds fly." — " Truth is mighty." — " He opened his 
eyes and saw." — "Experience teaches better than books." 

A transitive verb asserts action only, and such action as is 
always exerted upon some person or thing called the object; 
as, " The sun warms the earth." — " The boy struck his friend." 

An intransitive verb asserts being or state, — or action not 
exerted upon any person or thing ; as, " The sky is clear."— 
** The traveler sits by the roadside." — " The wind blows." 



70 PEOPEETIES OF VEEBS — V )ICE. 

ExEBCiSE I. — Mention the verbs in the following se itences. tell to 
which class, according to meaning, each belongs, and give the reasons: — 

Mode l. — " James studies his lessons, while John is idle." 

Studies. — Studies lessons. — " Studies" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc." ; — it is transitive, because it has an object (lessons). 

Is. — " Is" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc." ; it is intransitive, because 
it has no object. 

1. Labor sweetens pleasure. 2. He is a bold speaker. 3. They answer 
my questions. 4. A good tree bears good fruit. 5. A storm gathered in 
the west. 6. The firmament proclaims its great Original. 7. Breezes 
played among the foliage. 8. A certain man had two sons. 9. Show 
charity to all men. 10. Charity thinketh no evil. 11. My Uncle Toby 
went to his bureau. 12. The pulse fluttered, then stopped. 13. The 
camel carried him safely. 14. Captain Cook sailed around the world. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences, each containing a transitive 
verb; — ten, each containing an intransitive verb. 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 

The properties of verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, 

Number, and Person. 

/ 

VOICE. 

Voice is that property of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject or nominative does or 
receives the action expressed by the verb. 

Voice belongs to transitive verbs only. 

There are two voices; the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of a transitive verb 
which shows that the subject does the action ex- 
pr(5ssed by the verb; as, " Henry carries the basket." 

In this sentence, the subject Henry does the 
action expressed by the verb carries. "Carries" 
is, therefore, in the active voice. 

The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb 
which shows that the subject receives the action ex- 



VOICE — EXERCISES. 71 

pressed by tlie verb; as, "The basket is carri.id by- 
Henry." 

In this sentence, the subject basket does not act, 
but receives the action expressed by the verb is 
carried. "Is carried" is, therefore, in the passive 

voice. 

E,EMAEK. — Altliougli intransitive verbs have no voice, yet 
they have the form of the active voice. 

ExEKCiSE I. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell which 
are transitive and which intransitive; tell in what voice each is, and give 
the reasons : — 

Mode l. — " The vessel sank soou after it was struck, and carried the 
crew to the bottom." 

Sank. — " Sank" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc." ; it is intransitive, 
because the action which it asserts,is not exerted upon any object; it has 
no voice, because it is an intransitive verb. 

Was struck. — " Was struck" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc." ; it ia 
transitive, because the action which it asserts, is exerted upon some 
bbject ; — in the passive voice, because it shows that the subject {it) receives 
the action asserted. 

Carried. — Carried crew. — " Carried" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc." ; 
it is transitive, because the action which it asserts is exerted upon some 
object (crew) ; — in the active voice, because it shows that the svhject {ves- 
sel) does the action asserted. 

1. A moan was heard. 2. Heroes fought and bled. 3. Armies are de- 
feated. 4. Thick clouds obscured the sun. 5. Trees overhang the brook. 
6. Actions are governed by circumstances. 7. The voyage was under- 
taken at an evil time. 8. He was educated at Yale College. 9 Old let- 
ters become very dear to us. 10. The Arago landed me at New York. 
11. 1 was awaked by a loud knock at the door. 12. The bayonet receives 
its name from Bayonne in France. It was first used in 1603. 13. The 
first printing-press in America was established in 1639, at Cambridge, 

Exercise II. — Write ten or more sentences, each cont- ining a 
verb in the active voice. 

Change the sentences just written, so that the verb shall be in the 
•passive roice • Thus, Active Voice, "A smile disarms revenge"; Passive 
Voice, Revenge is disarmed by a smile." 



72 MODE. 

MODE. 

Mode is tliat property of a verb which distin- 
guishes in what manner the action the being, or 
the state, asserted by the verb, is expressed. 

Verbs have five modes; the Indicative, the Po- 
tential, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the 
Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to express a positive assertion; as, "Wash- 
ington commanded the Americans." 

A verb in the indicative mode may also be used to ask a 
question, and to express uncertainty or contingency ; as, " If 
he has gone, I do not know it." " Who invented the art of 
printing ?" 

The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to express possibility^ liberty, power, neces- 
sity, or desire ; as, " I can go.'* — " He must study.' 

A verb in the potential mode may also be used to ask a 
question, and to express uncertainty or contingency ; as, " May 
I go f" — If I 7nay go, I certainly will (go)." 

The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to express the action, the being, or the state, 
asserted by the verb, as dem^able, uncertain, or as 
subject to some condition; as, " If he come, he will 
be received." — " O that I were happy!" 

A verb in the subjunctive mode always depends upon a 
verb in some other mode, and is connected with it by one of 
the conjunctions if, although, tmless, lest, and that. 

The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to express entreaty, permission, command, or 
exhortation; as, " Gh^ant my request." — ''Obey me." 

The subject of a verb in the imperative mode, which ia 



EXEECISES — TENSE. 73 

feither thou or you, is usually omitted, but it must oe men- 
tioned in parsing. 

The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which 
is used to express an action, a being, or a state, 
which is not limited to a subject; as, "To love."-^ 
" He tries to study." 

REMARKS. 

A verb is said to be finite when the action, the being, or the 
etate, which it asserts, is limited to a subject, or nominative. 

Verbs in the indicative mode, in the potential, in the sub- 
junctive, and in the imperative, are finite verbs. 

A verb in the infinitive mode is not finite, because it has 
no subject or nominative. 

Exercise I. — Name each verb in the following sentences, the dasa 
to which it belongs, its voice and mode, and give the reasons : — 

MoDEii. — "Night had dropped its black curtain upon the great city." 

Had dropped. — Had dropped curtain. — " Had dropped" is a verb ; "A 
Verb is, etc." ; it is transitive, because it has an object {curtain) ; — in 
the active voice, because it shows that the subject {night) does the action 
asserted by the verb; — in the indicative mode, because it is used to 
express a positive assertion. 

1. The wind began to blow. 2. Employ time .profitably. 3. If he be 
respected, he will be contented. 4. Evil may befall us. 5. "Waves rise 
and fall. 6. They were injured by the accident. 7. Will you trust me? 
8. Friends should tell each other kindly of faults. 9. A quiet tongue 
prevents strife. 10. They went to travel in foreign lands. 11. No one 
has lived too long to learn. 12. We can stop under that tree for shelter. 
13. We can not easily free ourselves from bad habits. 14. If a book be 
lost, it must be replaced. 

Exercise II. — ^Write sentences, containing verbs in the various 
modes, 

TENSE. 

Tense is that property of the verb which distin- 
guishes the time of the action, the being, or the 
state, asserted by the verb. 



74 • TENSE. 

There are six tenses ; the Present, the Past, the 
Future, the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and 
the Future Perfect. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which 
is used to express jpresent time; as, "I learnt — 
" Thou art loved." — " He is writing a letter." 

The present tense denotes what now is, what now 
takes place, or what is now talcing place. 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which is 
used to express pa^t time; as, "He was a good 
man." — " He fought a battle." — " He was dying." 

The past tense denotes what laas, what took place, 
or what was taking place. 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which 
is used to e^^re^B future time, merely; as, "I shall 
learn." — "Spring will come." 

The future tense denotes what shall or will be, 
what shall or will take place, or what shall or will 
be taking place. 

The Present Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which is used to express ^^o^^ time connected with the 
present; as, " I hare learned!' — " Thou ha^t been 
loved." — "He has written a letter to-day." 

The present perfect tense denotes what has been, 
what has taken place, or what has been taking place, 
during a period of time of which the present mo- 
ment is a j^art. 

The Past Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which is used to express past time which is previous 
to some other past time; as, " He had gone, before the 
messenger arHved." 



THE TENSES OF THE DIFFEEENT MODES. 75 

The past perfect tense denotes what had beeUy 
what had tahen place, or what had been taking placey 
before some past event mentioned. 

The Future Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which is used to express future time which is pre- 
vious to some other future time; as, "I shall have 
finished the task before the close of next weeh." 

The future perfect tense denotes what shall or 
will have been, what shall or will have tahen place, 
or what shall or will have been taking place, before 
some future event mentioned. 

THE TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT MODES. 

The indicative mode has all the six tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses ; the present, the past, 
tbe present perfect, and the past perfect. 

The subjunctive has two tenses ; the present and the past. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses; the present and the 
present perfect. 

The imperative mode has but one tense ; the present. 

ExEKCiSE I. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell the 
doss to which each belongs, its voice, mode, and tense, and give the 
reasons : — 

MoDEi,. — "Long icicles glistened in the sunlight." 

Glistened. — "Glistened" is a verb, "A Verb is, etc."; it is intransitive, 
because it has no object ; it has no voice, because it is an intransitive 
verb ; it is in the indicative mode, because it is used to express a posi- 
tive assertion ; — in the past tense, because it expresses past time. 

1, Thirst causes agony. 2. The two friends talked long together. 3. 
My request has been granted. 4. Trials will come to us all. 5. When I 
left, the coach had arrived. 6. Woes cluster ; they love a train. 7. Take 
care of the pence, and the pounds wiU take care of themselves. 8. They 
will have finished the house before the occupants enter it. 9. The driver 
carried them all to the hotel. 10. Dingy houses looked down upon the 
7 



76 PARTICIPLES. 

filthy street. 11. A loud knock was heard. 12. Calmness ji danger haa 
saved many. 13, He who will make no effort to gain friends, can not 
expect sympa hy. 14. We were guarded in our language. 15. They had 
been reproved often, before they ceased to annoy. 
Exercise II. — Write sentences containing verbs in the various 



NTJMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have clianges of form to correspond witn 
the number and the person of their subjects. 

Verbs, therefore, are said to have two numbers, 
the Singular and the Plural; and three persons, — 
the First, the Second, and the Third; thus: — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. I am, We are, I learn. We learn, 

2d Pers. thou art, you are, thou learnest, you learn, 
3d Pers. he is ; they are. he learns ; they learn. 
A verb in the infinitive mode has no number or person, 
because it has no subject. 

Some verbs can be used only in one person ; as, " It rains." 
They are called TJnipersonal Verbs. 

PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a form of the verb which has the 
nature partly of the verb and partly of the ad- 
jective; as, "Wealth acquired dishonestly, affords 
no happiness." 

The participle has the nature of the verb, because it ex- 
presses (though it does not assert) action, being, or state, and 
also implies time. It has the nature of the adjective, because, 
Lke an adjective, it describes or limits a noun or a pronoun. 

There are three participles; the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, and the Preperfect. 

The Imperfect Participle is one which represents an 
action, a being, or a state, as continuing, or as un- 



PARI ICIPLES — EEMAIiKS. 77 

finished; as, " The waves were heard breaJdng on 
the beach." 

The imperfect participle in the active voice ends with ing 
as, learning, seeing. In this voice it is a single Avord. 

The imperfect participle in the passive voice has being for 
its sign ; as, being seen, being read. In this voice it is always 
coraplex in form. 

The Perfect Participle is one which represents an 
action, a being, or a state, as complete or finished; 
as, "He came, accompanied by his friends." — "The 
army retired, defeated on all sides." 

The perfect participle in each voice is a single word. 

The perfect participle of regular, and of most irregular, 
verbs, has the same form as the past tense. 

They are thus distinguished: The past tense of a verb 
always asserts action, being, or state, of some subject; as, 
"Washington loved (verb) his country." 

The perfect participle implies or denotes action, being, or 
state, but does not assert it of any subject; as, "Washington 
died, loved (perf. part.) by his countrymen." 

The Preperfect Participle is one which represents an 
action, a being, or a state, as complete or finished 
before some other action, being, or state; as, ^^ Having 
reached the summit, they sat down to rest." 

The preperfect participle is always complex in form, and in 
the active voice is made by placing having, and in the passive 
voice by placing having been, before the perfect participle; 
as, having loved; having been taught. 

REMARKS. 

When a particijle is used merely to describe a noun or a 
pronoun, it is called a Participial Adj active ; as, "Cultivated 
fields surrounded the mansion." — "A running stream is a 
pleasant sight." 

When a participle receives a prefix not found i:i the verb 



78 CLASSES OF VEEBS ACCOEDING TO FOEMAIION. 

from whicli it is formed, it becomes an adjective simply, and 
is to be parsed as such ; as, beloved, unloved, unhonored. 

When a participle ending with ing is used as the name of an 
action, a being, or a state, it is called a Participial Noun, and 
is parsed as a noun simply; as, "His reading is indistinct." 

Exercise I. — Name the participles in the following sentences, and 
tell to which doss each belongs; also, the participles used as adjectives, 
and those used as riouns: — 

MoDEii. — "The sentinel, listening to the dashing waves, was lulled 
into an untroubled sleep." 

Listening. — " Listening" is a participle, "A Participle is a form, etc." ; 
it is the imperfect participle of the verb " to listen," because it represents 
an action as continuing or as unfinished. 

Dashing. — " Dashing" is the imperf. part, of the verb " to dash" ; it is 
used as an adjective, because it merely describes the noun waves. 

Untroubled. — "Untroubled" is an adjective, because it is formed from 
the verb " to trouble" by receiving the prefix un-, and is used to describe 
the noun sleep. 

1. The old homestead, once so loved and treasured, was now deserted. 
2. The whispering winds came through the raised window. 3. Pure and 
white lay the untrodden snow. 4. The canoe, borne into the seething 
rapids, was soon carried over the falls. 5. The lamps having been ex- 
tinguished, darkness enveloped all in its thickening gloom. 6. Having 
convicted the prisoners by mock law, the council hurried them to unde- 
served punishment 7. He lay like a warrior taking his rest. 8. Being 
accused unjustly, he felt aggrieved. 9. The unbounded prospect lay 
before us. 10. The general, having received orders calling for men, sent 
them, by forced marches, to aid the besieging troops. 11. Emerging from 
the gorge, they found the enemy drawn up in battle array upon elevated 
ground. 12. Eeading makes a full man ; writing, an exact man. 

Exercise II. — Write sentences, containing the difierent partici- 
ples; — others containing participial adjectives; — others containing par- 
ticipial nouns. 

CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORMATION. 

Verbs are divided, according to their formation, 
into two classes ; Eegular and Irregular. 



CLASSES OF VEEBS ACCORDIlSica TO FORMATION. 79 

A Regular Verb is one whose past tense and i)erfect 
participle are formed by suffixing ed to its present 
tense; as, Pres., love; Past, loved; Perf. Part., loved. 

An Irregular Verb is one whose past tense or per- 
fect participle, or both, are not formed by suffixing 
ed to its present tense; as, Pres., take; Past, took; 
Perf. Part., taken. 

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 

The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle, 
are called the Principal Parts of a verb. 

They are called the Principal Parts, because, besides being 
themselves tenses or parts of the verb, they aid in the forma- 
tion of all the other tenses or parts of the verb. 



A TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MORE 
IMPORTANT IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Abide, 


abode. 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth), 


bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat. 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began. 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent. 


bended, bent. 


Beseech, 


besought. 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade. 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleea, 


bled. 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew. 


blown. 


Break, 


broke. 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred. 


bred. 


Bring 


brought, 


brought. 



80 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Burst, 


burst. 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


east. 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched. 


caught, catched 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, ehose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove. 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came. 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to ventur-), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


r>ig, 


dug, digged. 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt 


, dreamed, dreamt 


Drink- 


drank. 


drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


eat, ate. 


eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found. 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake. 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze. 


frozen. 


Get, 


got. 


got, gotten. 


Give, 


gave. 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Haug, 


hanged, hung. 


hanged, hung. 



THE PEIXCIPAIi PAETS OF lEEEGULAR VEEBS. 81 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard. 


heard. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit. 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid. 


laid. 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


Leave, / 


left. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent. 


lent. 


Let, 


let. 


let. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay, 


lain. 


1 Lose, 


lost. 


lost. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


Mean, 


meant. 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


paid. 


paid. 


Put, 


put. 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Run, 


ran, run. 


run. 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought. 


sought. 


SeU, 


sold. 


sold. 


Send, 


sent. 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook. 


shakwi. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 



82 THE PRINCIPAL PAETS OF lEEEGULAR VEEBS. 



Fresent. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed. 


shown, showed. 


Shrink, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang. 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank. 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept. 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 


Sling, 


slung. 


slung. 


Smite, 


smote. 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed. 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake. 


spoken. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt. 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent. 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun. 


spun. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood. 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck. 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung. 


stung. ' 


Strike, 


struck. 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung. 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove. 


striven. 


Swear, 


swore. 


sworn. 


Sweep, 


swept. 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled. 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


swam, swum. 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung. 


swung. 


Take, 


took. 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught 


Tear, 


tore. 


torn. 


TeU, 


told. 


told. 


Think, 


thought. 


thought. 



AUXILIAEY VERBS — ETC. 



83 



Present. 


past. 


Perfect PaH. 


Thrive, 


thrived. 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thriist. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod, trodden. 


Wear, 


wore, 


■worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept. 


wept. 


Win, 


won. 


won. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked," wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung. 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
modes and the tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are he, do, have, will, can, 
may, shall, must, and need. 



THE USES OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Be, do, have, need, and will, are also complete or principal 
verbs ; they are auxiliary, when used with a participle or 
with any other part of a principal verb. 

Can, may, must, and shall, are auxiliary verbs only. 

Be, and its variations {am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert, 
been, being), when used with the perfect participle of a prin- 
cipal verb, form the passive voice of that verb ; as, " I am 
loved." — " If I be loved." 

When used with the imperfect participle of a principal 
verb, they form what is called the Progressive Form of that 
verb ; as, " Thou art studying." 

Do, in the active voice, makes what is called the Emphatic 
Form of the present tense in the indicative mode, in the sub- 
junctive, and in the imperative ; as, " They do wish to go." 

In the passive voice, the emphatic form is used in the im- 
perative mode only; as, "Do thou be loved." 





INDICATIVE 


MODE. 




1. 


Singular. 

I am, 


Present Tense 


1. 


PTural. 

We are. 


2. 


Thou art, 






2. 


You are, 


3. 


He is; 






3. 


They are. 



84 CONJUGATION. 

Bid, the past form of do, in the active voice riakes the 
emphatic form of the past tense in the indicative mode and 
in the subjunctive; as, " I know that he did intend to go." 

Did is not userl in the passive voice. 

Have helps to form the present perfect tense ; and its past, 
had, the past perfect ; as, " I have lived." — " We had seen." 

Will and shall help to form the future tense ; and will have 
and shall have, to form the future perfect tense; as, I shall'or 
will write." — ;" He shall have written." 

Can, may, must, and need, help to form the present tense 
of the potential mode ; as, " I can, may, must, or need write." 

Can have, may have, must have, and need have, help to form 
the present perfect tense of the potential mode ; as, " Thou 
mayst have been there." 

Might, could, would, and should (the past of may, can, will, 
and shall,) help to form the past tense of the potential ; as, 
" He might remain." 

Might have, could have, would have, and should have, help to 
form the past perfect of the potential ; as, " I could have told." 

CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
ment of its several voices, modes, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

CONJUGATION OF THE INTRANSITIVE VERB 
TO BE, 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Am. Past. — Was. Perfect Participle. — Been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE INTEANSITIVE VEEB '^TO BE. ' 85 

Past Tense. 



1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

Future Tense; — implying &mv^\y future time. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be. 

Future Tense; — implying promise, command, or threat, 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. Thou shalt be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be; 3. They shall be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
1. 1 shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been, 2. You will or shall have been, 

3. He will or shall have been ; 3. They will or shall have been, 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 
1. 1 may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

1. 1 might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 



86 CONJUGATION OF THE INTRANSITIVE VERB "TO BE." 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. 1 might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to 6e" in every tense of this mode^ 
using all the auxUiaxies. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 

Past Ten^e. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Pi-esent Tense. 
( Be, or be thou, / Be, or be you, 

' \ Do be, or do thou be ; ' \ Do be, or do you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — To be. Present Perfect Tense. — To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect. — ^Being. Perfect. — Been. Preperfect. — Having been. 

Exercise I. — Mention the mode, the tense, the numher, and the per- 
son of each part of the verb " to be" in the following expressions : — 

If he were. Be. To have been. They might have been. You shall 
have been. We had been. Do you be. If I were. If he be. She may 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "tO LOVE." 87 

have been. The men have been. He will be. We were. Thou art. 
To be. If thou be. We might be. I may be. They will or shall have 
been. Thou hast been. 

Exercise II. — Name the first persons singular, and the first per- 
sons plural, of the indicative mode; — of the potential mode; — of the 
subjunctive mode. 

The second persons singular, and the second persons plural, of the im- 
perative mode ; — of the potential ; — of the indicative ; — of the subjunctive. 

The third persons singular, and the. third persons plural, of the indi- 
cative; — of the imperative; — of the subjunctive; — of the potential. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB 
TO LOVE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PEINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Love. Past. — Loved. Per/. Participle. — ^Loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

8. He loves; 3. They love. 

Present Tense: — Emphatic Form. 
1. 1 do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love; 3. They do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved; 3. They loved. 

Past Ten^e: — Mnphatio Form. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 
8. He did love; 8. They did love. 



88 CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB "tO LOVE/' 

Future Tense: — implying si.m.^\y future time. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 8. They will love. 

Fidure Tense; — iurplymg promise, command, or threat, 
1. 1 will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall Icve, 

3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
1. 1 shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have loved, 2. You will or shall have loved, 

3. He will or shall have loved ; 3. They will or shall have loved 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3, They may love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Th)u mayst have loved, 2, You may have loved, 

3. He may ha ve loved ; 3. They may have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE 7EEB "TO LOVE." 89 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. "We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

Present Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1. If I do love, 1. If we do love, 

2. If thou do love, 2. If you do love, 

3. If he do love; 3. If they do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 

PaM Tense: — Mnphatio Form. 

1. If I did love, 1. If we did love, 

2. If thou did love, 2. If you did love. 

3. If he did love; 3. If they did love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Love, love thou, or 2. Love, love you, or 

do thou love; do you love. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To love. Present Perfect. — To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Impfrfect. — Loving. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect. — Having 

loved. 



90 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

Exercise I. — Conjugate tlie verbs to rule, to listen, to obey, to leavcy 
and to sell, in the active voice, in the same manner as the verb to love 
b conjugated. 

ExEKCiSE II. — Mention the mode, the tense, the number, and the 
person, of each verb in the following expressions: — 

They had awaked. Beseech. If they did bind. If thou bled. You 
might have cast. We may dig. He shall or will have drunk. Thou 
wilt drive. I had eaten. To have fed. Do thou forsake. If he freeze. 
They may have gained. You must give. We could have. They might, 
could, would, or should have kept. He will or shall have known. Thou 
hadst lain. They shrunk. You teach. Thou mayst have sat. He 
should sit. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Passive Voice of a verb is formed loj com- 
bining with its perfect participle the variations of 
the auxiliary verb to he. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved; 3. They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was loved, 1. "We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense: — implying simply /wiwre time., 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 

Future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat. 

1. I will be loved, 1. We will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt be loved, 2. You shall be loved, 

3. He shall be loved ; 3. They shall be loved. 



CONJUGATION OP THE VERB "TO LOVE." 91 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfeet Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have 2. You will or shall have 

been loved, been loved, 

8. He will or shall have been 3. They will or shall have been 
loved ; loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect. 
1. 1 may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved; 3. They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 



92 COlirjCGATION OF THE YEEB "tO LOVE." 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If lie be loved ; 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou were loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, be thou loved, or 2. Be loved, be you loved, or 
do thou be loved. do you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — To be loved. Present Perfect. — To have been 

loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being loved. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect. — 

Having been loved. 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verbs to take, to catch, to draw, and to 
hold, in the passive voice, in the same manner as the verb to love is 
conjugated. 

Exercise 1 1. — Mention the voice, the mode, the tense, the number, 
and the person, of each verb in the following expressions : — 

Thou art admired. Do thou be thrown. They are pleased. If they 
■were torn. They might have been struck. You may be injured. We 
fihall have been sunk. He shall be shot. , It might be woven. I have 
been sent. Be thou put. They may have been paid. You could be 
lost. We were lent. He is hit. If thou were hanged. If he be found. 
To be clad. I may have been harmed. They might have been chosen. 

Exercise II I. — Parse the verbs and the participle in the following 
Bentences: - 



VERBS — EXERCISES. 93 

Models.— 1. "A large tree, which stood in the field, had Itien struck 
by lightning." 

Stood. — Which stood. — " Stood" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc." ; it 
is intransitive, because it has no object; — irregular, because its past tense 
and perfect participle are not formed by suffixing ed to its present tense 
(pres. stand, past stood, perf. part, stood) ; — it has no voice, because it is 
an intransitive verb; — in the indicative mode, because it expresses a 
positive assertion ; — in the past tense, because it denotes past lime ; — ^in 
the singular number, third person, because its subject which is, with 
which it agrees. 

Sad been struck. — Tree had been struck. — " Had been struck" is a verb, 
"A Verb is a word, etc." ; — transitive, because, etc. ; — irregular, because, 
etc. (pres. strike, past struck, perf. part, struck or stricken) ; — in the pass, 
voice, because, etc. ; — in the indicative mode, because, etc. ; — ^in the past 
perfect tense, because, etc. ; — in the singular number, third person, be- 
cause jlts subject tree is, with which it agrees. 

2. — " Sleeping, the tired child soon forgot its troubles." 

Sleeping. — Child sleeping. — " Sleeping" is a participle, "A Participle ia 
a form, etc." ; it is the imperfect participle of the verb to sleep, because it 
represents a state as continuing (imperf. part, sleeping, perf. slept, preperf. 
having slept) ; it describes the noun child. 

Tired. — Tired child. — "Tired" is the perf. part, of the verb to tire, and 
vsed as an adjective; it can be compared (pos. tired, comp. more tired, sup. 
most tired) ; it is in the pos. degree, and describes the noun child. 

3. — "The dropping of water wears even stones." 

Dropping. — Dropping wears. — " Dropping" is the imperf. part, of the 
verb to drop ; it is used as a noun in the sing, numb., third pers., and of 
the neuter gender ; — in the nom. case, being the subject of the verb wears. 

1. Nature abounds in variety. 2. The sun ripens the grains. 3. 
Every fruit contains an acid. 4. Large streams from little fountains 
flow. 6. If you know the reason, mention it. 6. The unusual appear- 
ance caused much alarm. 7. A little stone can make a great bruise. 
8. The sailor-boy dreamed of his distant home. 9. He sat long in the 
gathering twilight, thinking of his misfortunes. 10. The laws by which 
God governs the world are unchangeable. 11. When we shall have 
passed through difficulties, we will be prepared for the pleasures which 
follow. 12. Be honest, and you will be above suspicion. 13. If thou be 
firm in the right, then shalt thou be indeed firm. 14. Arnold pos.sessed 



94 ADVERBS. 

talents by wMcli he miglit have been placed among the first men of 
liis age. 

15. Often did I strive for the mastery over my feelings, but as often did 
I fail. 16. He who fears God does not fear man. 17. You might have 
seen with what cruelty vengeance inflicts torments. 18. The swallow 
twittered from the straw-built shed. 19. Now, amazed, he gazed upon 
the surrounding beauties of the landscape. 20. We should consider time 
as a trust committed to us by God. 21. Delay not until to-morrow the 
duties which you can perform to-day. 22. He who proposes his own 
happiness, but does not put his plans in practice, should reflect that, 
while he forms his purpose, the day rolls on, and " the night cometh 
when no man can work." 

ExEECiSE I V. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, the articles, and 
the adjectives, in the preceding sentences. 



ADVERBS. 



An Adverb is a word used to qualify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, "The 
stream flows rapidly T — " The air is very hot." 

In the first sentence, rapidly is used with the yerh flows to 
describe or qualify the manner in which the action ex])ressed 
by the verb takes place ; therefore, rapidly is an adverb. 

In the second sentence, very shows in what degree the 
quality denoted by the adjective hot is considered, and limits 
or qualifies its meaning ; therefore, very is an adverb. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs may be divided into five general classes ; Adverbs 
of Manner, of Time, of Place, of Degree, and of Interrogation. 

I. Adverbs of Manner generally answer to the question 
Howf Most of them are formed from adjectives or partici- 
ples by suffixing ly; and a few, by si^xing how or wise. 



COMPARISON OP ADVERBS. 95 

Some of the adverbs of manner are ill, so, thus, udl, badly, 
easily, somehow, likewise, certainly, truly, yes, no. 

II. Adverbs of Time generally answer to the question 
When? How longf How often f or How soon? 

The principal adverbs of time are already, always, daily, 
ever, forthwith, lately, now, never, often, seldom, since, then, 
until, yesterday, yet, etc. ; also, once, twice, and thrice. 

III. Adverbs of Place generally answer to the question 
Where f Whereabouts? Whence? or Whither? 

The principal adverbs of place are anywhere, downward, 
hence, here, hither, nowhere, off, out, somewhere, thence, there, 
upward, where, wherever, yonder, etc. ; also, first, secondly, etc. ; 
singly, doubly, etc. 

IV. Adverbs of Degree generally answer to the question 
How much? or How little? An adverb of degree usually 
qualifies an adjective or another adverb. 

The principal adverbs of degree are almost, altogether, as, 
enough, equally, even, much, more, most, little, less, least, only, 
quite, scarcely, so, very, wholly, etc. 

V. Adverbs of Interrogation are used in asking questions. 
The principal adverbs of interrogation are how, when, 

whence, where, wherefore, whither, why, etc. 

Adverbs used to connect the parts of a sentence are called 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 

The principal are after, as, before, how, then, till, until, 
when, where, why, etc. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

A few adverbs are compared like adjectives by 
suffixing to the positive er to form the comparative, 
and est to form the superlative ; as, pos. soon^ comp. 
sooner, sup. soonest. 

Most adverbs that end with the syllable ly ad- 
mit the form of comparison made by placing before 
the positive more or less to form the comparative, 
and most or k tst to form the superlative. 



96 ADVEEBS EXERCISES. 

Thus, pos. ea4>ily, comp. more easily, sup. most easily; pos. 
frequently, comp. less frequently, sup. least frequently. 
The following adverbs are compared irregularly : — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Badly, worse, -worst. 

Far, farther, farthest. 

Ill, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

Exercise I. — Tell to which class each of the following cdverhs 
belongs, give the reason, and compare such as can be compared: — 

Model. — Thus. — "Thus" is an adverb of manner, because it answers 
to the question Howf It can not be compared. 

Much. — " Much" is an adverb of degree, because it answers to the ques- 
tion now much? or How little? It can be compared, — pos. much, comp. 
vwre, sup. most. 

Why, wholly, singly, always, well, very, yes, yonder, twice, 
likewise, only, nowhere, often, certainly, never, here, somehow, 
even, quite, off, truly, homeward, hither, less, enough, lately, 
wherever, easily, most, then, when, yet. 

Exercise 1 1. — Write ten sentences, containing adverbs of man- 
ner; — ten, of time; — five, of place; — five, of degree; — five, of interro- 
gation. 

Exercise II I. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "Lament no more the past, but improve the present." 

No. — No mare. — " No" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a word, etc." ; — 
of manner, because it answers to the question Howf — it can not be com- 
pared ; it qualifies the adverb more. 

More. — Lament more. — " More" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a word, 
etc." ; — of degree, because it answers to the question How much f or How 
little ? — it can be compared (pos. much, comp. more, sup. most) ; it is in 
ihe comparative degree, and qualifies the verb lament. 

1. He arose at a very early hour. 2. The air is very clear, very stilly 
and tenderly sad in its serene brightness. 3. How eeldom a good man 
inherits honor and wealth ! 4. The noblest monuments gradually decay. 
5. It is too la 5 for repentance now. 6. They moved so gently that theii 



PEEPOSITIONS. 97 

footsteps were not teard. 7. In the morning they spoke more calmly. 
8. Honesty is often recommended by those who are not honest them- 
Belves. 9. They had scarcely reached the ravine when they were furi- 
ously attacked. 10. Temptations are not always easily overcome. 11. 
Long and anxiously did he await their return. 12. A train was rush- 
ing along at almost lightning speed. 13. We should grasp at the shadow 
less eagerly, and we would prize the substance more. 

ExEECTSE IV. — ^Parse the nouns, the pronouns, the articles, the 
adjectives, and the verbs, in the preceding sentences. 



PEEPOSITIONS. 



A Preposition is a word used before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word; 
as, "The ship in the harbor will soon sail." 

In this sentence, the word in is used to show the relation 
of harbor to ship with regard to place ; therefore in is a pre- 
position. 

CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are divided into three classes : Sim- 
ple, Compound, and Complex. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen, namely : — at, 
after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, 
since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a or be 
to some noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition ; by uniting 
two prepositions; or by uniting a preposition and an adverb. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefixing a are abaft, 
aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, 
amongst, around, athwart. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefixing be are 
before, behind, beloii\ beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, 
beyond. 



98 PEEPOSITIONS — EXEECISES. 

The compound prepositions formed by uniting two preposi- 
tions, or a preposition and an adverb, are into, throughout, to- 
v>ard, towards, underneath, until, unto, upon, within, without. 

Comples Prepositions are composed of two or more preposi- 
tions, or of a preposition and some other part of speech, which 
together express one relation. 

Thus, "The spring flowed /rom hetwe-en the rocks." Here, 
from between is a complex preposition, and shows the relation 
between rocks and flowed. 

From before, from between, from over, over against, out of 
round about, are complex prepositions. 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences containing simple prepositions • 
— ten, compound; — six, complex. 

Exercise II. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: — 

Mo DEI/.— "They passed from the house, and wandered about the 
city." 

From. — Passed fi'om hoicse. — " From" is a simple preposition, "A Pre- 
position is a word, etc." ; it is used before the noun home to show its 
lelation to the verb passed. 

About. — Wandered about city. — "About" is a preposition, "A Preposi- 
tion is a word, etc." ; — a compound preposition, " Compound Prepositions 
are usually formed, etc." ; it is used before the noun city to show its re- 
lation to the verb wandered. 

1. Loud shouts of merriment burst from the happy group. 2. The 
Bongs of the birds struck upon his ear as they had in his boyhood. 3. 
Pride goeth before destruction. 4. The wolves prowled around the 
house. 5. Nothing great can be accomplished without labor. 6. The 
orders of the officers were heard above the din of battle. 7. Guard 
against the sudden impulse of anger. 

In the country, close by the road, stood a handsome house. Before it 
there was a garden with flowers, and a painted railing ; and just outside 
of the railing, among beautiful green grass, grew a little daisy. The 
sun shone upon it as Warmly and kindly as upon the large flowers in 
the garden. 

Exercise III. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, the articles, the 
adjectives, the verbs, and the adverbs, in the preceding sentences. 



CONJUNCTIONS — CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 99 



CONJUKCTIOI^S. 



A Conjunction is a word used to connect tlie words, 
the parts of a sentence, or tlie sentences, between 
whicli it is placed; as, "He is patient and happy, 
because he is a Christian." 

In this example, and connects the words patient and happy, 
while because connects the parts of the sentence, He is patient 
and happy, and he is a Christian; the words and and because 
are therefore conjunctions. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions may be divided into two general 
classes; Copulative and Disjunctive. 

A Copulative Conjunction is one which denotes an addition, a 
consequence, a purpose, a reason, or a supposition. 

The copulative conjunctions are also, and, as, because, both, 
even, for, if, seeing, since, so, that, then, and therefore. 

A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which denotes a choice, a com- 
parison, a separation, or a restriction. 

The disjunctive conjunctions are although, but, either, else, 
except, lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, notwithstanding, or, pro 
vided, than, though, unless, yet, whereas, and whether. 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences, containing copulative conjunc- 
tions ; — ten, containing disjunctive conjunctions. 

Exercise II.— Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences: — 

Mode i,. — " Let your character be pure and upright, that you may 
deserve the love of your friends." 

And. — Pm'e and upnght. — "And" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction is a 
word, etc."; — a copulative conjunction, because it denotes addition; it 
connects the words pure and upright between which it is placed. 

That. — Let your character be pure and upright, that yoit, may deserve the 
me of your friends. — "Tha" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction is a word, 



100 INTEEJECTIOJSrS. 

etc." ; — a copulative conjunction, because it denotes a reason ; it coi. necta 
the two sentences Let your character he pure and upright, and you may deserve 
the love of your friends, between which it is placed. 

1. The farmer sold his wheat and corn to the miller. 2. Kain and sun- 
shine are needed for the growth of crops. 3. Henry came, but he could 
not remain long. 4. You must treat others kindly if you wish kind 
treatment. 5. The minutes are precious, therefore improve them. 6. 
He was faithful and just to me. 7. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

The glorious sun has set, and the air, which was sultry, has become 
cool. No murmur of bees is around the hive, or among the honeyed 
woodbines; they have done their work, and lie close in their waxen cells. 
The smith's hammer is not heard upon the anvil, nor is the harsh saw 
of the carpenter heard. 

ExEBCiSE III. — Parse all the nouns, the pronouns, the articles, 
the adjectives, the verbs, the adverbs, and the prepositions, in the pre- 
ceding sentences. 



INTERJECTIONS. 



An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to 
express some emotion of the mind ; as, Ha ! pshaw 1 
alas! halloo! 

The following are interjections: — 

Adieu, ah, ahoy, alas, bah, faugh, fie, foh, ha, halloo, hist, ho, 
humph, pshaw, tush, whist. 

Exercise I. — Parse the interjections in the following sentences : — 

Mode l. — "Alas ! how vain are our hopes !" 

AIus. — "Alas" has no grammatical connection. — "Alas" is an interjection, 
"An Interjection is a word, etc." 

1. Adieu ! I must go. 2. Hist ! avoid all noise. 3. Pshaw ! how care- 
less you are! 4. Bah! can he be deceived by such stories? 5. Ah ! must 
we part thus from all that is dear ? 

Exercise 1 1. — Compose sentences, each of which shall contain all 
the parts of speech. 

Parse ^ach w ird in the sentences composed. 



CLASSES OF se:!5tences accordixg to use. 101 



SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of sentences, and teaclies how to 
construct them from words. 

A Sentence is two or more words (one of which 
must be a finite verb) so combined as to make com- 
plete sense; as, "Water flows to seek its level." 

The complete sense contained in a sentence is 
called a Proposition. 

Thus, "Water flows" is both a sentence and a proposition. 

A Phrase is two or more words combined, form- 
ing one expression, but not making complete sense. 

Thus, " Water flows to seek its level" is a sentence; — " to seek 
its level" is a phrase, or a part of a sentence. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO USE. 

Sentences may be divided, according to the man- 
ner in which they are used, into Declarative, In- 
terrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used to affirm 
or to deny; as, "The sun shines." 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to 
ask a question; as, "Does the sun shine?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to ex- 
press a command, an entreaty, or a permission; as, 
"Let the sun shine." — "Be persuaded." 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one which is used in 



102 CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCOKDIXG TO FORM. 

exclamation, or to express strong emotion; as, 
" How tlie sun shines!" — "Alas, we are lost !" 

Exercise I. — Mention to which class each of the following sen- 
tences belongs, and give the reason : — 

Model 1. — " The sun gives light." 

This is a declarative sentence, because it is one which is used to afErm 
something. 

2. — " Obey your parents." 

This is an imperative sentence, because it is one which is used to 
express a command. 

1. The rain falls. 2. The storm has ceased. 3. The dove returned no 
more. 4. How many pecks are contained in a bushel ? 5. Alas ! I am 
ruined. 6. Practise what you preach. 7. How the thunder rolls! 8. 
Take not the name of God in vain. 9. Kemorse will haunt a guilty 
conscience. 10. Do you know your lesson yet? 11. Bright, in that 
happy land, beams every eye. 12. In what year did the American Kevo- 
luti on commence? 13. If you wish to be happy, do your duty. 14. How 
gracefully Mary walks ! 15. Let us then be up and doing. 

Exercise II. — Compose ten declarative sentences; — ten interroga- 
tive; — ten imperative; — ten exclamatory. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 

Sentences are divided according to their form 
into Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains a single 
proposition; as, "I will go." 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains a propo- 
sition qualified by one or more other propositions. 

Thus, " I will go, if you stay," " He who is diligent, shall be 
rewarded," are complex sentences. 

One proposition qualifies another, when added to explain 
it, or to change or complete its meaning. 

Clauses.-.— The propositions in complex sentences 
are called Clauses. 



CLAUSES — ME]\..BERS. 103 

Clauses are of two kinds ; Independent ,^or Prin- 
cipal), and Dependent (or Qualifying). 

An Independent Clause is one which would express 
complete sense if used alone. 

A Dependent Clause is one which depends upon an- 
other clause and qualifies its meaning. 

Tims, in the complex sentence, "I will go, if you stay," I 
will go is the independent clause, and ij you stay is the de- 
pendent. 

Clauses are usually connected by relative pro- 
nouns, by conjunctive adverbs, or by the conjunctions 
as, for, if, since, so, than, that, though, unless, and a 
few others. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or 
more sentences, simple or complex. 

Thus, " The trees are shaken by the wind, and the leaves strew 
the ground," "I will go, but you must stay until I return," are 
compound sentences. 

Members. — The simple or the complex sen- 
tences in a compound sentence are called Members. 

Thus, in the compound sentence, " I will go, but you must 
stay until I return," there are two members ; the first is the 
simple sentence, / will go, and the second is the complex sen- 
tence, you must stay until I return. 

Members are usually connected by the conjunc- 
tions also, and, both, but, either, neither, nor, or. 

Exercise I. — Classify tlie following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Books afford instruction." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is two or more words, etc."; — de- 
clarative, because it affirms something ; — simple, because it contains a 
single proposition. 

2. — " Did you see the gentleman who called yesterday?" 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is two or more words, etc." ; — ''liter* 



104 DIVISIONS or SYNTAX. 

rogative, because it is used to ask a question ; — complex, because i c *n- 
tains a proposition qualified by another proposition. 

The independent or principal proposition is, Did you see the gentleman; 
the dependent or qualiiying proposition is, who called yesterday; — these 
clauses are connected by the relative who. 

3. — " The sun sets, and the mountains are shaded." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc." ; — declarative, because, etc. ;— 
compound, because it contains two simple sentences. The sun sets, and the 
mountains are shaded, — which are members, connected by the conj. and. 

I. You must command. 2. I will obey. 3. I will obey if you com- 
mand. 4. You must command, and I will obey. 5. He recites pre mptly. 
6. He recites well, because he has studied diligently. 7. If you do not 
succeed at first, try again. 8. There goes the boy that never tells a lie. 
9. The cunning man is often caught in his own trap. 10. Oh ! what a 
joyful meeting there will be ! 

II. Learn one thing at a time, and learn that thing well. 12. This is 
the diffisrence between Napoleon and Washington : the one fought to be 
a monarch ; the other fought to be a servant. 13. The wicked flee when 
»o man pursueth. 14. When did this accident, which you have related, 
happen ? 15. The mariner's compass was invented before America was 
discovered. 16. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 17. After the 
war had continued nearly eight years, the colonies became independent. 

Exercise II. — Compose ten simple sentences; — ten complex sen- 
tences ; — ten compound sentences. 

DIVISIONS OF SYNTAX. 

Syntax may be considered under two divisions ; 
Analysis and Synthesis. 

Analysis, in Grammar, is the separation of sen- 
tences into the parts which compose them. 

Synthesis is the construction or formation of sen- 
tences from words. 

Ellipsis. — Ellipsis is the omission of one or more 
words, phrases, or clauses necessary to complete the 
sense and construction of a sentence : as, " He loves 
play better than {he loves) study." 



AiS'ALYSIS — THE PARTS OF SEXTENCES. 105 



ANALYSIS. 



THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 

The Parts of Sentences are tlie Essential, the 
Secondary (or Qualifying), the Connecting, and 
the Independent. 

The Essential Parts. — The Essential Parts are 
those without which a sentence can not be formed. 

The essential parts are the Subject and the Pre- 
dicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is said or 
asserted; as, " Water ^ows" 

The Predicate is that which is said or asserted of 
the subject; as, "Water ^ot^s." 

A subject and a predicate combined form a pro- 
position or sentence. 

Exercise I.^Mention the subject and the predicate in each of the 
following sentences : — 

Mode l. — " Water flows." 

In this sentence, water is the subject, because it is that concerning 
which flows is said or asserted ; and flovjs is the predicate, because it is that 
which is said or asserted of water; the two parts combined form the pro- 
position or sentence, "Water flows." 

1. Flowers fade. 2. Leaves wither. 3. Winter has come. 4. Children 
should try. 5. Something has happened. 6. Lessons are recited. 7. 
Pleasure allures. 8. Stutly improves. 9. Gold glistens. 10. Charles I. 
was beheaded. 11, Nations have perished. 12. Sin will.be punished. 

Exercise II. — Mention the subject and the predicate in each of 
the following sentences : — 

Mode l. — " The water of the brook flows into the lake." 

In this sentence. The water of the brook is the subject, because it is that 
concerning whi:,li flows into the lake is asserted ; and flows into the lake is the 



106 DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE. 

predicate, because it is that wliich is asserted of the water of the brook; the 
two parts combined form the proposition or sentence. 

1. The flowers of summer are now blooming. 2. Icy winter will soon 
l)e here. 3. She is handsome. 4. A thick fog rests upon the river. 5. 
Speak (thou) distinctly. 6. Louisiana was purchased from France in 
1803. 7. Deceit never prospers. 8. Kesist the allurements of sin. 9. 
Something sad has happened to him. 10. Study improves the mind. 11. 
The ship was loaded with cotton for Liverpool. 12. To do good is' plea- 
sant. 13. Little things are sometimes very important. 14. To be con- 
tented is to be happy. 

ExEKCiSE IIL — Mention the subject and the predicate in each of 
the following sentences: — 

Mod Ely. — "Little brooks and tiny streams flow down its side and 
empty into the lake." 

In this sentence, Little brooks and tiny streams is the subject, because it 
is that concerning which floiv down its side and empty into the lake is as- 
serted ; and flow down its side and empty into the lake is the predicate, 
because it is that which is asserted of Utile brooks and tiny streams ; the 
two parts combined form the sentence or proposition. 

1. Bricks and mortar form the wall. 2. The sun rises and sets. 3. 
Leaves and flowers wither and fade. 4. Truth and error can never 
agree. 5. Charles and William will remain and study. 6. Napoleon 
fought and conquered. 7. The lion and the lamb shall lie down together. 
8. We must labor and wait. 9. Virtue and vice are at variance. 10. 
Washington and Jefferson were patriots. 

DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

The subject may be Simple, Complex, or Com- 
pound ; as. Simple, water; Complex, the water of the 
brooh; Compouucl, little broohs and tiny strearns. 

The predicate may be Simple, Complex, or Com- 
pound; as. Simple, jlotvs; Complex, flows down its 
nde; Compound, flow and empty. 

THE SIMPLE SUBJECT AND THE SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

The Simple SnlDJect is usually a noun or a pronoun, 



SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE. 107 

or some word used as a noun; as, " Wate^^ flows." — 
"It flows." 

The simple subject is also called the subject-nominative. 

The Simple Predicate is always and simply a finite 
verb; as, "Water Jlows" — "It might have Jlowed." 

The simple predicate is also called the predicate-verb. 

THE COMPLEX SUBJECT AND THE COMPLEX PREDICATE. 

The Complex Subject is the simple subject taken 
with all its qualifications. 

The qualifications of a word are those words, 
phrases, or clauses which limit or qualify its mean- 
ing or use. 

In the sentence, " The water of the brook flows," water is 
the subject-nominative or the simple subject, the article the 
and the phrase of the brook are its qualifications ; — therefore, 
The water of the brook is the complex subject. 

The Complex Predicate is the simple predicate taken 
with all its qualifications. 

In the sentence, '•' The brook flows through the meadow," 
flows is the predicate-verb or simple predicate, and the phrase 
through themeadow is its qualification ; — therefore, ^oi«;s through 
the meadow is the complex predicate. 

THE COMPOUND SUBJECT AND THE COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

The Compound Subject is one which consists of two 
or more simple or complex subjects, united by one 
conjunction or more. 

In the sentence, "Brooks and streams flow," the subject is 
compound, consisting of the two simple subjects, brooks and 
streams, which are connected by the conjunction and. 

The Compound Predicate is one which consists of two 



108 THE SECONDAEY PARTS, ETC. 

or more simple or complex predicates, united by 
one conjunction or more. 

In the sentence, " Brooks flow down its side and empty into 
the lake," the predicate is compound, consisting of two com 
plex predicates united by the conjunction and. 

The Secondary Parts. — The Secondary Parts 
of sentences are the words, phrases, and clauses used 
in forming complex subjects and predicates. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Aloxe for pleasure rapidly increases," 
a, for pleasure, and rapidly are the secondary parts. 

The Cona^ectixg Parts. — The Connecting Parts 
of sentences are relative pronouns, co7ij unctions, and 
conjunctive adverbs. 

The Ixdepexdext Parts. — The Independent 
Parts of sentences are words and phrases which are 
not essential, secondary, or connecting parts. 

1. Words, with or without qualifications, used as the names 
of persons or things addressed or uttered in exclamation, are 
independent; as, "Brother, give me thy hand." — " Gentlemen 
of the jury, I ask your attention." 

2. Interjections and certain adverbs; as, "Oh! it is not 
possible." — " Well, I am willing." 

■^ Exercise. — In the following sentences, (1) mention the kind of 
each ; (2) the subject and the predicate of each ; (3) the kind of subject 
and predicate; (4) and the subject-nominative and the predicate-verb. 

]M o D E L 1. — " Clouds darken." 

This is a sentence, declarative, simple. The subject is clouds, simple; 
the predicate is darken, simple. The subject-nominative is the noun 
clouds; the predicate- verb is darken. 

2. — " The heavy clouds darken the air." 

This is a sentence, declarative, simple. The subject is The heavy 
clouds, complex ; the predicate is darken the air, complex. The subject- 
nominative is the noun clc-uds; the predicate-verb is darken. 



EXERCISES ON PARTS OP SE2sTENCES. 109 

3. — "Heaven and earth shall pass away." 

This is a sentence, declarative, simple. The subject is Heaven and 
earth, compound, consisting of two simple subjects connected bv the 
conjunction and; the predicate is shall pass away, complex. The sub- 
ject-nominatives are heaven and earth, and the predicate-verb is shall pass. 

4.— "Will James go, if I ask him?" 

This is a sentence, interrogative, complex. The independent clause 
or proposition is, Will James go? This is qualified by the dependent 
clause or proposition, if I ask him. They are connected by the conj. if. 

The subject of the independent clause is James, simple; the predicate 
is will go, simple. 

The subject of the dependent clause is I, simple; the predicate is ask 
Mm, complex, etc. 

5. — " The soil is fertile, but the climate is unhealthy." 

This is a sentence, declarative, compound. The members are The soil 
is fertile, and the climate is unhealthy. They are connected by the con- 
junction but. 

The subject of the first member is the soil, complex; the predicate ia 
is unhealthy, complex, etc. 

1. Dew-drops sparkle. 2. Children play. 3. The hour has passed. 4. 
Beauty charms us. 5. The fragrant woodbine had clambered over the 
porch. 6. A deep snow lay upon the ground. 7. A noisy flock of blue- 
jays collected in the woods behind us. 8. The butter and the cheese of 
Delaware county are justly celebrated. 9. You must try harder if you 
wish to succeed. 10. The leaves are falling fast, although the air is still. 
]1, Do you know where John's folks live? 12. Improve the moments as 
they pass. 13. The wind was favorable, and the ship soon brought ua 
within sight of land. 14. Kighteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a 
reproach to any people. 15. The rich man died, and was buried. 16. 
None of the country-people would venture at night near the old mill, 
which was said to be haunted. 17. The sun had set behind the western 
hills, and twilight was gradually deepening into night. 

Exercise II. — Mention the independent parts in the following: — 

1. Father, must I stay? 2. Sweet bird, thy bower is ever green. 3. 
Oh ! could I fly, I'd fly with thee. 4. Do you remember, James, what I 
said? 5. I am h ^re, ladies and gentlemen, to address you. 6. Well, my 
friend, what can I do for you? 7. O ye little warblers, how sweet are 
your notes ! 



110 QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE SUBJECT, 
THE QUALIFICATION'S OF THE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 

The simple subject, if a noun, may be qualified 
in the following ways : — 

1. By an article; as, "The hour has come." 

2. By an explanatory noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case; as, "Friend William has come." 

3. By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, 
"Pleasure's hour has come." — "My hour has come." 

4. By a preposition with its object; as, " Hours of rest." 

5. By an adjective ; as, "Pleasant hours were spent." 

6. By a participle ; as, " Hours appointed have begun." 

7. By a verb in the infinitive mode ; as, " Time to study has 
begun." 

8. By a clause ; as, " Men who will work, have come." 
When the simple subject is a pronoun, it may have all the 

qualifications of a noun, except that made by a noun or a 
pronoun in the possessive case. 

Any qualifying word, or two or more words taken as one 
qualifying term, may be called an Adjunct. 

Words wliicb qualify the simple subject may 
themselves be qualified in the ways above mentioned. 

The noun or the pronoun used as the name of a person or 
thing addressed or uttered in exclamation may be qualified 
like the subject-nominative; as, "O friend of my boyhood!" 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

The simple predicate or predicate-verb may be 
qualified in the following ways : — 

1. By a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case, which 
means the same person or thing as the subject-nominative; 
as, " Kings are men." — " Napoleon was proclaimed emperor." 

The predicate-verb is thus qualified only when it is an in- 
transitive verb, or a transitive verb in the passive voice. 
This qualifier may be called the predicate-nominative. 

2. By a noun in the objective case ; as, " They found rji Id." 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PLEDICAIE. Ill 

3. By a preposition with its object; as, " He camefo school." 

4. By an adjective describing or limiting the subject; as, 
" Truth is eternal." 

5. By a participle relating to the subject; as, "He came 
running." 

6. By an adverb; as, "William came speedily." 

7. By an infinitive ; as, " He came to see." 

8. By a clause ; as, " I discovered that I was ignorant." 

Words which qualify the simple predicate may 
be qualified just as the same parts of speech in the 
complex subject are qualified. 

An infinitive or a participle may receive all the qualifica- 
tions that the predicate-verb can take. 

Exercise I. — Mention (1) the simple subjects and predicates; (2) 
their qualifying words; (3) the adjuncts of the qualifying words; and (4) the 
whole or complex subjects and predicates, in the following sentences : — 

Mode l. — " His very pleasant manners made a favorable impression." 

In this sentence the simple subject or subject-nominative is the noun 
manners; the simple predicate or predicate-verb is made. 

The words qualifying the simple subject or subject-nominative are his, 
a pronoim in the possessive case, and the adjective pleasant; and pleasant 
is qualified by the adverb very. The whole or complex subject is His very 
pleasant manners. 

The word qualifying the simple predicate or predicate-verb is its 
object, the noun impression, which is itself qualified by the article a and 
by the adjective favorable. The whole or complex predicate is made Ok 
favorable impression. 

1. Nature is full of variety. 2. Earnest effort rarely fails. 3. Wil- 
liam's nobleness of conduct excited much admiration. 4. My name is 
Norval. 5. Texas was annexed to the United States in 1845. 6. Young 
persons are fond of novelty. 7. The shores of Lake George are wild and 
beautiful. 8. Tom pitied her with all his big heart. 9. America has 
furnished to the world the character of Washington. 10. The teacher 
should be quick, precise, earnest, and kind. 11. Write your name, by 
kinduess, love, and mercy, on the hearts of those around you. 12. The 
Btudy of truth is ever joined with the love of virtue. 13. Truthfulness is 
10 



112 PHEASES AND CLAUSES 

the test of character. 14. Daniel, the farmer's son, became greitly dis- 
tinguished. 15. The high hills looked so tempting to climb. 16. Bridge- 
port, a cunning little village, was on the other side of the river. 17. Be- 
hind the house was a large cornfield. 18. Forests of standing trees have 
been discovered in some parts of the world, imbedded in stone. 

Exercise II. — The following sentences have only simple sub- 
jects and predicates; make each subject or predicate complex by adding 
qualifying words : — 

1. Boys play. 2. Book delights. 3. Grammar teaches. 4. Storm 
began. 5. Shouts arose. 6. Camels carry. 7. Paris is. 8. Clock ticks. 
9. Washington was. 10. Path led. 11. Eeception was given. 12. Noise 
is heard. 13. Squirrel hopped. 14. Deer ran. 15. This happened. 
16. Words are spoken. 17. Drink refreshed. 18. Field yielded. 19. 
Oak rears. 20. Sit. 21. Do you see ? 22. Mountain stands. 

PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 

A phrase may be named according to the part 
of speech to which its leading word belongs, or from 
the way in which it qualifies. 

The following are the principal phrases: — ' 

1. The Appositional or Exi^lanatory ; as, "Hope, the light' 
ener of toil, inspired us." 

2. The Adjective ; as, "Sick at heart, we ceased to search." 

3. The Adverbial ; as, "Far up the mountain side stood a 
little cottage." 

4. The Infinitive; as, " Rain descends to water the earth" 

5. The Participial ; as, "Darting a look of scorn, the monarch 
replied." 

6. The Absolute; as, "A storm arising, we sought shelter." 
The leading noun in this phrase may be qualified like a 

subject-nominative. This phrase is equivalent to a proposi- 
tion, It is called absolute, because it is absolved or loosened 
from its form as a proposition, and is made a phrase. 

7. The Independent: as, "0 long expected day, begin." 
Remark. — Of the preceding phrases, the independent 

qualifies neither subject nor predicate; the absolute, both 



EXEECISES ON GIBUSES AND PHEASES. 113 

Bubject and predicate, or the whole proposition ; the others 
may qualify either subject or predicate. 

Dependent clauses may receive special names 
from their position in sentences, or from the man- 
ner in which they qualify. 

1. The Relative or Adjective Clause; as, "He who runs, 
may read." — "The wisdom which is from above, is first pure." 

This is also called the Explanatory Clause. 

2. The Adverbial Clause; as, "It lay ivhere it fell." — "Look 
before you leap." 

Adverbial Clauses are usually connected with the parts 
which they qualify by conjunctive adverbs. 

3. The Comparative Clause, which is introduced by the 
conjunction than; as, "Truth is stranger than fiction (is)." 

Exercise I. — Classify the following sentences, mention the phrases 
and the clauses contained in them, and tell what each qualiiies: — 

Model 1. — " Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire, took Baby- 
lon." 

This is a simple sentence ; it contains a phrase, namely, the founder of 
the Persian empire, which is appositional or explanatory, and qualifies the 
Bubject-nominative, Cyrus. 

2. — " Cyrus, who founded the Persian empire, took Babylon." 

This Ls a complex sentence ; it contains a dependent clause, namely, 
who founded the Persian empire, which is relative or explanatory, and 
qualifies the subject-nominative, Cyrus. 

1. Paris, the capital of France, is a beautiful city. 2. Fields, rich 
with ripening harvests, lay beneath us. 3. I had a desire to visit distant 
lands. 4. Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, 
are invincible. 5. Once upon a time a wondei-ful magician lived there. 
6. Think before you speak. 7. The rose which was plucked this morning 
has already withered. 8. Injured by the fall, he lay moaning on the 
ground. 9. Those best can bear reproof who merit praise. 10. The 
letter being written, Mary took it to the post-office. 11. Greatly to his 
delight, William foimd the long-lost book. 12. Wisdom is more to be 
desired than gold is. 

13. Conscious of his guilt, he could not deny the charge. 14. My 



J 1-i SYNTHESIS. 

presence of mind returning, I demanded his name, 15. Samuel came 
after the gate was closed. 16. A pretended patriot, he imprisoned the 
pope. 17. As we proceeded, new wonders presented themselves. 18. He 
who builds does not always occupy. 19. Pearl, the English for Margaret, 
is a pretty name. 20. O, childhood's happy hours! how sweet the 
remembrance ! 

Exercise II. — Write sentences containing the phrases or the 
clauses above enumerated. 



SYNTHESIS. 



Synthesis is that division of Syntax wliicli treats 
of the construction of sentences from words. 

It teaches how to put words together properly, 
according to principles called Rules of Syntax. 

RULE I.— THE SUBJECT OF A FINITE VERB. 

A noun or a j^i'onoun which is the subject of a 
finite verb is in the nominative case. 

NOTES. 

1. The subject of a verb is usually a noun or a pronoun; 
as, "The hills are clothed in green." — "They wave with ripen- 
ing grain." 

2. The subject of a verb may also be a verb in the infini- 
tive mode, or any word, used as a noun in the nominative case; 
as, "To sleep is refreshing." — "Them should never be used 
for those." 

3. Nouns in the first or in the second person are never the 
subjects of finite verbs. (Eule V., Note 1.) 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 

Model. — "James and me are good friends." 

This sentence is incorrect, because me, which is a pronoun in the 
objective case, is used as the subject of the verb are. Me should be /, and 
tiie sentenre should be, " James and I arc good friends." 



RULE II.— THE NOMINATIVE CAfeE INDEPENDENT. 115 

1. My brother and me have a little garden. 2. I cannot tell whom 
will be sent. 3. Him and I were present. 4. Whom do you think was 
chosen? 5. He did not try so hard as them. 6. Who can explain the 
principle? Me. 7. Mary is not nearly so old as her. 8. Him and her 
attend the same school. 9. Thomas reads more plainly than him. 10. 
Them who come late can not be admitted, 11. He can write better than 
me, but I can draw as well as him. 

Exercise II. — Parse the subjects in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "The Spaniards and the Italians formed an alliance." 

Spaniards. — Spaniards formed. — " Spaniards" is a proper noun, in the 
plural number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is in the 
nominative case, being one of the subjects of the finite verb formed, ac- 
cording to Kule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " To die for one's country is noble." 

To die. — To die is. — " To die" is an intransitive, regular verb, in the 
infinitive mode ; it is used as a noim in the singular number, third person, 
and of the neuter gender; — in the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb is, according to Eule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. Our bones give support to our bodies. 2. The Jews were once very 
powerful, 3. The walls, the beams, and the rafters of a house should 
be made strong. 4. To waste time is criminal. 5. Washington, Napo- 
leon, and Frederic the Great were early risers. 6. The beaks of birds 
differ greatly from each other. 7. To expect much from very young 
minds is foolish. 8. A pennyworth of mirth is worth a pound of sorrow. 

Sweet words, kind remarks, and pleasant smiles have cheered many a 
weary heart. Pearls and rubies are not more precious than are the little 
kindnesses that even the smallest child can show; and the happiness con- 
ferred by them is greater than words can tell. 

RULE n.— THE NOMIlSrATIVE CASE USTDEPEISTDENT. 

A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend 
upon its connection with, any other word, is in the 
nominative case independent. 

NOTES, 
A noun or a pronoun may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent ; — 



116 XOTES — EXEECISES. 

I. When it represents a person or thing addresst.l; as, 
" My son, attend unto my words." 

This is the nominative independent by address. 

II. When it is used in exclamation ; as, " O, the happy days 
of childhood !" 

This is the nominative independent by exclamation. 

Til. When it is placed before a participle relating to it, 
and is not the subject of any verb; as, "This ai'my being 
defeated, all hostilities ceased." 

This is the nominative independent before a participle. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences: — 

Mod Eli. — "Him being absent, nothing was done." 

This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the 
objective case, should be in the nominative case, because it is used inde- 
pendently before the particiijle being. Him should be he, and the sen- 
tence should be, "He being absent, nothing was done." 

1. Them being honest, I have no fear. 2. "And thee too, Brutus !" 
cried Cresar. 3. Us having returned, the work progressed. 4. O happy 
us, if this be so ! 5. Thee assisting us, we shall succeed. 6. Me having 
the key, the door could not be opened. 7. O wretched them! what can 
be done for them ? 8. Whom suffering from sickness, the work all fell 
upon us. 9. O Thee who rulest the world, hear my prayer I 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns used independently in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

Model 1. — " Thou shalt suffer, proud man, for this." 

3Ian. — " Man" has no grammatical connection. — " Man" is a common 
noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the masculine 
gender; it is in the nominative case independent by address, according 
to Eule n., "A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend, etc." 

2. — "France having acknowledged their independence, great rejoicing 
followed." 

France. — " France" has no grammatical connection. — " France" is a 
proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter 
gender; it is in the nominative case independent before the participle 
having acknowledged, according to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. Oh, Hubert, save me from these men ! 2. How is your health, my 
dear friend? 3. Spring returning, the seeds begin to swell in the earth. 



RULE III. — THE POSSESSIVE CASE — NOrES. Ii7 

4. Ah! my pretty captive, you wished to escape, did you? 5. The 
bridges being swept away, we could not continue our journey. 6. 
deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 7. The summit being gained, they all 
paused to admire the prospect. 8. Time! — alas! how soon 'tis gone! 9. 
O Death, come not to me when the beautiful flowers are in bloom. 10. 
Napoleon having been defeated, the monarchy was re-established. 11. 
Precious moments! Ah, they will never return. 12. The grave! the 
gi-ave ! It buries every error, and covers every defect. 

RULE III.— THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits 
the word used as the name of the thing possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. The proper forms of nouns and pronouns in the pos- 
sessive should always be written ; as, " The hoy's hat is lost." 
— " The ladies' dresses were finished." — " This book is hers." 

2. The word limited by the possessive may be omitted 
"when its use is not required to complete the sense; as, "The 
goods were bought at Stewart's (store)." 

3. In the use of complex nouns, the sign of the possessive 
is suffixed to the last word of the complex name; as, "Lord 
Cornwallis's troops were surrendered at Yorktown." 

4. When two or more nouns in the possessive are con- 
nected and denote joint owners of the same thing, the sign 
of the possessive is suffixed to the last word only. 

Thus, "Ferdinand and Isabella's little fleet" ; — this implies 
that both were concerned in the ownership of the fleet. 

When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected 
and denote separate owners of difierent things, the sign of the 
possessive is suffixed to each noun. 

Thus, "Jo/m's and William' shook" ; — this implies that only 
one is concerned in the ownership of each book. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences and phrases : — 

Model 1. — " This book is hei-'s." 

This sentence is incorrect, because hei^s, which is in the possessive, has 



118 EULE III. — EXERCISES. 

not the proper form. Her^s should be hers, and the sentence iLould be 
" This book is hers." 

2. — " David's and Jonathan's friendship." 

This phrase is incorrect, because the sign of the possessive is suffixed 
to each of two nouns connected in the possessive, and denoting joint 
owners of the same thing. The sign should be suffixed to the last noun 
only, and the sentence should be, " David and Jonathan's friendship." 

1. The boys hat was lost. 2. Mens clothing neatly repaired. 3. 
Thomas's Jefferson's term as President commenced in 1801. 4. Gates and 
Burgoyne's troops fought at Saratoga. 5. The books were not their's. 
6. Websters Dictionary is a standard work. 7. Who's knives are these? 
They are our's. 8. Queen's Victoria's reign commenced in 1837. 9. I 
respect my father as well as my mother's wishes. 10. Mann's and 
Chase's Arithmetic. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the nouns in the possessive case in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

Model 1. — " He bought the goods at Stewart's." 

Stewards. — Stewart's (store). — "Stewart's" is a proper noun, in the 
singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is in the 
possessive case, and limits the noun store (understood), according to 
Rule in., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " Captain Mayne Eeid's stories for boys are very interesting." 

Capt. Mayne ReicTs. — Capt. Mayne Reid's stories. — "Capt. Mayne 
Reid's" is a complex proper noun, in the singular number, third person, 
and of the masculine gender; it is in the possessive case, and limits the 
noun stones, according to Rule III., "A noun, etc." 

1. Tears were in the little fellow's eyes. 2. The painter's first efforts 
were poor enough. 3. He stopped at the doctor's, and rang the bell. 4. 
Murray's and Brown's grammars have long been in use. 5. Bunyan's 
" Pilgrim's Progress" was written while he was in prison. 6. Mary and 
Susan's mother died while they were young. 7. The company's largest 
sailing-vessel was wrecked. 8. George Washington's "Farewell Ad- 
dress" was published in 1796. 9. The stocks were sold at Cooke's. 

One day Ellen's brother, Casper, brought home a little wagon, which 
he had bought at the carpenter's. " O," said Ellen, " I wonder if the 
little canaries could not be taught to draw this wagon around the room." 

" I think that they might," was Casper's reply, " if you could loake • 
harness small enough to fit them." 



EULE IV. — THE OBJECTIVE CASE — NOTES. 119 
RULE IV.— THE OBJECTIVE CASE, 

A noun or a pronoun which is the object of an 
action or of a relation, is in the objective case. 

Action refers to the action asserted by a verb, and relation 
to the relation denoted by a preposition. 

N 0-T E S. 

1. A noun or a pronoun can be the object of an action ex- 
pressed only by a transitive verb in the active voice; as, 
" Strive to perform your dtdies, and your friends will respect 
you." — " The peasant lived a life of toil." 

2. A noun or a pronoun may also be the object of an action 
expressed by the participle of a transitive verb in the active 
voice ; as, "A lake was seen reflecting the rays of the sun." 

3. An intransitive verb, or the participle of an intransitive 
verb, should not be used to govern the objective case : thus, " I 
will sit me down to rest," should be, " I will sit down to rest." 

4. Some nouns seem to be used without any governing word : 
thus, " He traveled several miles before he overtook the party." 

Before such a noun, one of the prepositions by, during, for, 
in, of, through, etc., may be supplied in parsing : thus, " He 
traveled through sixty miles, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — " His father taught him and I to read." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun I, which is in the 
nominative case, is used as the object of the action expressed by the 
verb taught, /should be me, and the sentence should be, "Hisfathet 
taught him and me to read." 

2. — " The weary pilgrim sat himself down by the wayside." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun himself is used as the 
object of the intransitive verb sat ; it should be omitted, and the sentence 
should be, " The weary pilgrim sat down by the wayside." 

1. Nothing has been heard of he or his brother. 2. Who have you 
seen during your visit? 3. Between you and I, he is very much mis- 
taken, 4. Who did they call? I. 5. He that is poor and needy assist. 
6. She called somebody, but I do not know who. 7. Not thou only have ... 



120 EULE V. — APPO&ITION — NOTES. 

warned. 8. There is but little left for you and he to do. 9. Who do yoo 
want now? 10. Let that be known only to thee and I. 11. The men 
were tired, and lay themselves down to sleep. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the objectives in the following sentences :— ' 

Model. — "They commenced their journey, and traveled sixty miles." 

Journey. — Commenced journey. — " Journey" is a common noun, in the 

singular number, third person, and of the neuter gendei ; it is in the 

objective case, being the object of the action expressed by the verb comr~ 

menccd, according to Eule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc.* 

Ililes. — {Through) miles. — "Miles" is a common noun, in the plural 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective 
case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition through 
(understood), according to Eule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. I love the pebbly beach and the sunny waves. 2. The children 
gathered the strawberries which grew in great numbers along the path 
through the meadow. 3. Daisies reared their heads among the violets. 
4. The storm continued several days. 5. They rested an hour under the 
tree, and then continued their journey. 6. He clapped his hands and 
laughed aloud for joy. 7. Eead good books and avoid bad companions. 
8. The regiment marched twenty miles the first day. 9. It is better to 
rule by love than by fear. 

Descending the hill, and crossing the little stream at its base, we pre- 
sently came to a deserted cabin, probably erected by some earlier settler. 
Here we determined to pass the night. 

RULE v.— APPOSITION. 

A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with 
another is in the same case. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is put in apposition, when it is used 
with another noun or pronoun to explain it, or when it is 
added or repeated for the sake of emphasis. 

Thus, " Franklin, the ^j/w/osop/ier, will ever be remem- 
bered." — "Spring, joyous spring, has come." — "We, the 
people of the United States." 

2. The proper name and the common name of an object 



RULE V. — EXERCISES. 12] 

are often used together, the common name being in apposition 
"vvith the proper : thus, in the sentence, " The steamer Atlantic 
has arrived," steamer is put in apposition with Atlantic. 

3. When a noun in the possessive case is in apposition with 
another, the sign is usually suffixed only to that which imme- 
diately precedes the noun limited by the possessive; as, " The 
poet Milton's sonnets." 

4. Transitive verbs of naming, choosing, etc., are sometimes 
followed in the active voice by two objectives, the first of which 
is the object of the action expressed by the verb, and the other is 
put in apposition with it ; as, " They elected him president." 

5. Words in apposition must agree in case, but they may or 
may not agree in number, person, and gender: thus, in the 
sentence, "Thou, a man of wisdom, shouldst know the cause," 
etc., thou is in the second person, while man is in the third. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following senten ces : — 
Model. — "We miss our classmate, he who was so kind." 
This sentence is incorrect, because he, which is a pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, should be in the objective, because it is put in apposition 
with classmate, which is in the objective case. He should be him, and the 
sentence should be, " We miss our classmate, him who has been so kind." 
1. Eespect your teachers, they who do so much for you. 2. His aunt, 
her who was here, died suddenly. 3. The gardener, him who brought 
those roses, has a beautiful collection of flowers. 4. Harry, him to whom 
you spoke, is my friend. 5. I bought Bancroft's, the historian's, last 
volume. 6. Be kind to your mother, she who loves you so dearly. 7. 
We should praise God, He who has given us all things. 8. The jeweler, 
him who repaired my watch, is a good workman. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns in apposition in the following 
sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Franklin, the philosopher, died in 1790." 
Philosopher. — Franklin, philosopher. — "Philosopher" is a common 
noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gen- 
der ; ii is in the nominative case, being put in apposition with FranMim 
which is in the nominative case, according to Kule V., "A noun, etc." 

1. Jefferson, the third President, died July 4, 1826. 2. How he longed 
for summer, bright and beautiful summer ! 3. The steamer Great Eastern 



122 KULE VI. — SAME CASE AFTEE VERB — IS'OTES. 

arrived at New York. 4. George III., King of England, reigned sixty 
years. 5. We can not admire some of the poet Byron's writings. 6. Hia 
adherents made Cromwell Protector of the Commonwealth. 7. My 
friend Talbot came to the city with me. 8. He strictly observed his 
motto, " Prudence." 9. Her youngest brother, Edwin, soon came with his 
sled, the " Keindeer." 10. We should make our business our pleasure. 
11. King Agrippa earnestly listened to Paul the Apostle's preaching. 

Her little bird — a poor, slight thing, that the pressure of a finger 
would have crushed — was stu-ring nimbly in its cage; and the strong 
heart of its child-mistress was mute and motionless forever. 

RULE VI.— SAME CASE AFTER VERB. 

A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive 
verb, or a verb in tlie passive voice, is in the same 
case as the noun or the pronoun preceding the verb 
and meaning the same person or thing. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is after or before a verb or a par- 
ticiple when it follows or precedes the verb or the participle in 
the natural order of thought or expression. 

Thus, "A man he was to all the country dear," in the 
natural or usual order would be, "He was a man dear to all 
the country." 

2. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns and 
pronouns meaning the same person or thing are he, hecoyme, 
appear, groiv, etc. ; and the verbs call, choose, consider, make, 
etc., in the passive voice. 

3. If the conjunction that is used to connect a finite in- 
transitive verb with a transitive verb preceding, the noun or 
the i^ronoun following the intransitive verb is in the nomi- 
native case ; as, " I think (that) it was he." 

If the intransitive verb is in the infinitive mode and 
follows a transitive verb which has an object mentioned, the 
noun or the pronoun following the intransitive verb is in the 
objective case; as, "I think it to be him.'" 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 



EULE VII. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS — NOTES. 123 

Mode l. — " We believed it to be he that spoke to us." 

This sentence is incorrect, because he, which is a pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, should be in the objective, because it means the same person 
as it, which is in the objective case. He should be him, and the sentence 
ehould be, " We believed it to be him that spoke to us." 

1. That is him. 2. She does not know that it was them, 3. It is her 
who is mistaken. 4. Whom do you think it was? 6. It could not have 
been him who did it. 6. Who do you imagine it to be? 7. I would 
have done it, if I had been him. 8. " It was me that did it, sir," said 
the lad. 9. We all thought it to be she. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the same case 
after the verb in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "Capt. John Smith became governor of the colony." 

Governor. — Capt. John Smith hecsime governor. — "Governor" is a com- 
mon noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine 
gender ; it is in the nominative case after the intransitive verb became, 
because it denotes the same person as Capt. John Smith, which is in the 
nom. case, according to Eule VI., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

1. Thou art the man. 2. He is a hard student. 3. He lived a Chris- 
tian. 4. I knew it to be my friend. 5. The captives saw that it was a 
friend approaching. 6. A listening ear, a silent tongue, and a faithful 
heart are three precious jewels. 7. Truth is a divine attribute. 8. Joseph 
was made ruler over Egypt. 9. A man he was to all the country dear. 
10. His only food was the roots and the berries found in the woods. 11. 
The falsehood at first appeared to be a truth. 12. " Me" is a pronoun. 

Talent is something, tact is every thing. Tact is not a sixth sense, but 
it is the life of the other five. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the 
judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch; it is the interpreter 
of all riddles, the surmounter of all difficulties, the remover of all 



KULE VII.— PERSONAL PRONOUN'S. 

A personal pronoun agrees with the noun which 
it represents, in number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 
1. A pronouii which represents two or more nouns con- 
nected by and should be in the plural ; as, " Generals Worth 
and Twiggs united their armies." 
11 



J 24: BULE VII. PERSONAL PEOXOUNS — NOTES. 

Two or more nouns in tlie singular, connected by aiid and 
expressing only one person or thing, are represented by a 
pronoun in the singular ; as, " The traitor and renegade was 
detested by all that knew him." 

2. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns in the 
singular connected by or or nor, should be in the singular; 
as, " Neither James nor John has failed in his lesson." 

If one of the nouns connected by or or nor is in the plural, 
the pronoun representing them should be in the plural; as, 
" Keither the father nor his children knew their danger," 

3. A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns 
or pronouns of different persons connected by and, is in the 
first person if any one of the words which it represents is in 
the first person ; as, "He and I (toe) are going to our homes." 

If none of the nouns is in the first person, the pronoun is 
in the second person if any one of the nouns which it repre- 
sents is in the second person; as, "You and he (you^ failed 
in your efibrts." 

4. The pronoun it is used to represent a noun or a pronoun 
in either number, in any person, or of any gender ; as, " It is 
/." — "It was heJ — "It is men that we want, not money." 

It is also used indefinitely ; that is, without representing the 
name of any person or thing; as, "It snowed all day." — " They 
roughed it in the woods." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "A tree is known by his fruit." 

This sentence is incorrect, because his, a pronoun in the masculine 
gender, should be in the neuter, because the noun tree, which it represents, 
is neuter. His should be its, and the sentence should be, "A tree ia 
known by its fruit." 

2. — "Vice and ignorance have cast its blight over thousands." 

This sentence is incorrect, because its, which is a pronoun in the sin- 
gular number, should be in the plural, because it represents the two 
nouns vice and ignorance taken together and connected by and. Its 
should be tyjr, and the sentence should be, "Vice and ignorance have 
cast their blight over thousands. 

1. Every body has their faults. 2. If yo:i have committed errors, try 



RULE VIII. — RELATIVE PEONOUXS — NOIES. 125 

to correct it. 3. He bought some oats and gave it to the horse. 4. If you 
have a pen or a pencil, lend them to me. 5. He or his brother lost 
their title. 6. My friend and patron lent me their aid. 7. No one cap 
believe themselves to be free from prejudice. 8. Sugar and rice are brought 
from warm climates, where it can be raised in great abundance. 9. If a 
man takes a wrong step, they should not continue in their course. 

Exercise II. — Parse the personal pronoutis in the following 
sentences : — 

Mode i,. — " The songs that my mother sung were the sweetest." 

My. — [Person speaking) my mother. — "My" is a personal pronoun, in 
the singular number, first person, and of the masculine or the feminine 
gender, to agree with the noun the name of the person speaking which it 
represents, according to Eule VII., "A pronoun agrees, etc." ; — it is in 
the possessive case, and limits the noun mother, according to Eule III., 
"A noun or a pronoun in the possessive, etc." 

1. The farmer cultivates his fields. 2. In a republic the citizens elect 
their own rulers. 3. O sun, thou who rulest the day, how bright are 
thy beams ! 4. They who suffer most can generally endure the most. 5. 
I appeal to you, my fellow-citizens, to obey the laws. 6. Through good 
books good men talk to us. 7. The mountains cast their long evening 
shadows towards the east. 8. Twilight softens our hearts. 

"Alas!" said the sorrowful tree, " my precious robe is gone! It has 
been torn from me ; its faded pieces whirl upon the wind ; they rustle 
beneath the squirrel's foot as he searches for his food. My fair, green 
vesture is gone. I have lost it, and my glory is vanished." 

RULE VIII.— RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun agrees witli its antecedent in 
number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 

1. Who is used when reference is made to persons, or to 
things which are personified ; as, " The judge who presided, 
sentenced the criminal." — "Thou sun, who rulest the day!" 

2. Which is used when reference is made to inferior animals, 
to infants, and to things without life ; as, " The birds which 
sijig in the groves." — "The child which was lost." 

Which is also used when the objects composing the unit 



126 BULE VIII. — EXERCISES. 

denoted by a collective noun are referred to c. Ue^ti^ely ; as, 
" The fiioh which filled the streets, seemed bent on violence." 

3. That is sometimes used when reference is made to persons, 
animals, or things ; as, " The same person that I knew." — " The 
first money that he, received." 

That is used instead of who or which in the following 
instances : — 

I. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative degree; 
as, " He read the best books that could be procured." 

II. After the adjective same; as, "Others share the same 
difiiculties in study that we encounter." 

III. After who used interrogatively ; as, " Who, that indulges 
in vice, can be happy?" 

IV. After the personal pronoun it used indefinitely; as, "It 
"was he that committed the fault." 

4. What is used when reference is made to things only. 

5. What is often incorrectly used for the conjunction that: 
thus, " I do not know but what it is true," should be, " I do 
not know but that it is true." 

6. The rules which determine the number and the gender 
of the personal pronouns, apply also to the relative pronouns. 

Exercise 1.— Correct the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — " I did not see the man which came." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative which is used to agree 
with its antecedent vian, which is the name of a person. Which should 
be who, and the sentence should be, " I did not see the man who came." 

2. — " Read the best books which can be had." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative which is used after best, 
an adjective in the superlative degree. Which should be that, and the 
sentence should be, " Eead the best books that can be had." 

1. He which was lost, is found. 2. It was he who failed. 3. The cattle 
who graze upon a thousand hills are mine. 4. It could not have been 
she who came. 5. Who, who is sinful, can be truly happy? 6. He which 
pretends to know all things generally knows but little. 7. There h no 
doubt but what they will succeed. 8. We all admire the habits of the 
bee, who in summer provides her stores for the winter. 10. Sep the 
BwyJlow, who is the harbinger of summer. _ 



RULE IX. — ARTICLES — NOTES. 127 

Exercise II. — Parse the relative pronouns in the following sen* 
fences : — 

MoDEii 1. — "He who is cruel, troubleth his own flesh." 

Who. — Se who is. — "Who" is a relative pronoun, in the singular 
number, third person, and of the masculine gender, to agree with itp 
antecedent he, according to Rule VIII., "A relative pronoun agrees, 
etc." ; it is in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb is, 
according to Eule I., " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject, etc." 

2. — " I did not hear what he said." 

What. — Did hear what said what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, and 
in meaning includes both relative and antecedent (thing which) ; it is in 
the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender, to agrea 
with its antecedent {not mentioned), according to Rule VIII., "A re- 
lative pronoun, etc." • it is in the objective case, being the object of the 
action expressed by the verb did hear, according to Rule IV., "A noun 
or a pronoun which is the object, etc." ; it is also the object of the action 
expressed by the verb said, according to Eule IV., "A noun, etc." 

1. Avoid those habits which injure the health. 2. Happy is the man 
whose riches are not of this world. 3. He soon won the prize which 
was offered. 4. Your esteem is all that 1 ask. 5. Self-denial is one 
of the most important lessons that can be learned. 6. The cares, and 
troubles, and anxieties, which he had suffered, were now past. 7. The 
bold goddess, whose name is Ambition, and whose dower is Fame, toys 
with the feeble heart. 8. Avoid what has the least semblance of sin. 
9. He is an example of what industry can accomplish. 10. Be firm and 
honest in every position in which fortune places you. 

The selfish boy is one who loves himself only. He does not caro 
whose happiness he destroys, nor whom he deprives of pleasure ; all 
that he desires is to add to his own comfort, and what others suffer from 
his conduct makes no change in him, 

RULE IX.— ARTICLES. 

An article relates to tlie noun wMcli it limits in 
meaning. 

NOTES. 
1. The can relate to a noun in either the singular or the 
plural number ; as, Th( book; the multitudes ; the three vessels 



128 RULE IX. EXERCISES. 

A or an can relate to a noun in the singular number onlj ; 
as, A hook; a cold day; an excited multitude. 

2. The sometimes relates to an adjective used as a noun; 
as, "The poor ye have always with you." 

In such constructions the article may also be parsed as re- 
lating to some noun understood after the adjective. 

3. When several adjectives express different qualities and 
relate tp but one noun, the article is used with the first ad- 
jective only. 

Thus, "J. red, Avhite, and blue flag was hoisted;" — this 
means that one flag of three colors was hoisted. 

The article should be used with each of several adjectives 
if they relate to the same noun mentioned or understood 
more than once, and meaning the same person or thing. 

Thus, "^ red, a white, and a blue flag were raised;" — this 
means that three flags of diflerent colors were raised. 

ExEBCiSE I. — Correct the folio-wing sentences : — 
Model 1. — " I would go a great ways to hear him." 
This sentence is incorrect, because a is used to relate to the noun ivays, 
which is in the plural number. Waxjs should be way, and the sentence 
should be, " I would go a great way to hear him." 
2. — " He was seated on a black and a white horse." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used with each of 
the adjectives blofk and white, both of which express diflerent colors or 
pmlities of the same thing. A should be omitted before white, and the 
lentence should be, " He w.os seated on a black and white horse." 

1. An oats were sown in the field. 2. A bloody pantaloons wa.s found 
in the woods. 3. A red, a white, and a blue flag is the American em- 
blem. 4. The brown and the gray horse was hurt by the fall. 5. Which 
is the wider, the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean? 6. The second and third 
page were lost. 7. John was a good, a respectful, and an obedient 
pupil. 8. As he walked, he looked neither to the right hand nor left. 9. 
The good and bad man lived side by side. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the articles in the following sentences :- - 

Mode l. — " The poor ye have always with you." 

The. — The jwor. — " The" is the definite article ; it relates to the ad* 



RULE X. — ADJECTIVES — NOTES. 129 

jective poor iised as a noun, which it limits in -meaning according to 
Kule IX., "An article relates to, etc." 

1. An impatient spirit rendered him unhappy, 2. There the high and 
the low, the rich and the poor, meet upon the same level. 3. Many a 
corporal thinks himself a Wellington or a Napoleon. 4, The nomina- 
tive and the objective case of nouns are alike in form. 

There are those who shudder at the approach of autumn, and who 
feel a light grief stealing over their spirits, like an October haze, as the 
evening shadows slant sooner and longer over the face of an ending 
August day. 

RULE X.— ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective relates to the noun or tlie pronoun 
wHicli it describes or limits. 

■ NOTES. • 

1. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, especially when 
preceded by the definite article ; as, " The rich are not always 
the happiest." — " None but the brave deserve the fair." 

2. Two signs of the comparative degree or of the super- 
lative should never be used: thus, "The lesser evil," should 
be, "The less evil;" — "The most severest test," should be, 
" The severest test." 

3. An adjective expressing plurality must relate to a noun 
in the plural: thus, "He was six foot high," should be, " He 
was six feet high." — "A chain ten feet long." 

4. An adjective following a finite verb, and not itself fol- 
lowed by a noun or a pronoun mentioned or understood, 
relates to the subject of the verb; as, "The ice was smooth" 
— " The snow lies deep." 

ExEECiSE I. — Correct the following sentences : — 
M D E li 1. — " The hermit lived in the most strictest secliision." 
This sentence is incorrect, because mod strictest, which is a double 
form of the superlative, is used. Most strictest should be strictest, and 
the sentence should be, "The hermit lived in the strictest seclusion." 
2. — " A pole twenty foot long was used." 

This sentence is incorrect, because twenty, which is an adjective ex- 
plurality, is 'ised to relate to the noun foot, which is ?n the sin- 



130 EULE XI. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES — NOTES. 

gular. Foot should be feet, and the sentence should be, "A pole twenty 
feet long was used." 

1. Iron plates three inch thick were fastened upon the side of the vessel. 
2. The court inflicted the most severest punishment. 3. The party traveled 
but twenty mile a day. 4. The most noblest act of Washington's life 
was the sm-render of his commission. 5. The tree measured eight foot 
in diameter. 6. The ice on the river was most smoothest. 7. Twenty 
cord of wood were cut from the hill-side. 8. His position was one of the 
most pleasantest offered. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "Snow fell to the-depth of two feet." 

Two. — Two/ee«. — "Two" is a numeral adjective of the cardinal class; 
it can not be compared ; it relates to the noun feet, which it limits, ac- 
cording to Eule X., "An adjective relates, etc." 

1. The air was soft and mild. 2. The richest rays of the sun rested 
upon the rough, uneven edges of the clouds. 3. Eome was founded seven 
hundred and fifty-three years before the Christian era. 4. The wealthy 
merchant would sometimes leave his palatial residence in the city to visit 
the little, old, moss-covered cottage in which he had spe^it his early boy- 
hood days. 5. The well-known snow-bird is a visitant from the frozen 
regions of the north, coming even from beyond the Arctic circle. 

Just then a tall fern, that bowed its graceful head over the brook, 
seemed to turn into a beautiful, green fairy, and, in sweet tones that 
sounded like a smaller brook speaking, said: "If, foolish brook, you 
wish to leave this cool, green shade, the delicate, fragrant flowers that 
fringe your banks, and your best friends and protectors, these grand old 
trees; and if your murmuring waves wish to leave these mossy stones 
and bright, polished pebbles, speak, thoughtless stream, and your wish 
shall be gratified." 

RULE XL— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A pronominal adjective relates to the noun which 
it limits, — or agrees with the noun which it repre- 
sents, in number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 

1. The distributives all refer to nouns in the singular; as, 
*'Every day has its duties." 



RULE XI. EXERCISES. 131 

Either is sometimes improperly used for each: thus, "Tail 
trees lined either side of the road," should be, "Tall trees 
lined each side, etc." 

2. Of the demonstratives, this and that refer to nouns in 
the singular; these and those, to nouns in the plural; as, This 
man, that book; these men, those books. 

Them is often improperly used for those: thus, "Them acta 
were unjust," should be, "Those acts were unjust." 

3. The indefinite none, although strictly meaning no one, 
refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural ; as, "A book 
was wanted, but none v^as found." — "Many were examined, 
but none were found qualified." 

4. A pronominal is parsed as an adjective when the noun 
which it limits is mentioned ; as, "Each boy deserved praise." 

A pronominal adjective always agrees in number with the 
noun to which it relates ; as, That tree ; those trees ; another 
hour ; all days. 

A pronominal may be parsed as representing a noun, when 
it is correctly used without an article, and when the noun to 
which it refers is not mentioned; as, "Each was praised for 
his conduct." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 
Mod Eli 1. — "These kind of persons can not be trusted." 
This sentence is incorrect, because these, which is a demonstrative 
pronominal in the plural, is used to refer to the noun kind, which is in 
the singular. These should be this, and the sentence should be, "This 
kind of persons can not be trusted." 

1. Those sort of words provoke harsh feelings. 2. Them keys will 
unlock either door. 3. These important news has just arrived. 4. He 
looked up at the beautiful houses on either side of the street. 5. Them 
are not my sentiments. 6. The messenger who brought them tidings has 
gone. 7. Those molasses was brought from the West Indies. 8. Throw 
that ashes into the street. 9. Each stairs lead to the same room. 

Exercise II. — Parse the pronominal adjectives in the following 
sentences : — 

MoDEii 1. — "That event spread sorrow through the nation." 
That. -That eveiit. — "That" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective; 
I 



132 KDLE XII. AGREEMENT OF FINITE VEEBS — NOTES. 

it can not be compared; it relates to the noun event, which it limits, ac- 
uorcling to Rule XI., "A pronominal adjective, etc." 

2. — "The explanation satisfied all." 

All. — Satisfied all {persons). — "All" is an indefinite pron. adj.; it repre- 
sents the noun •persons (understood), with which it agrees, in the plural 
number, third person, masculine gender, according to Eule XI., "A pron. 
adjective, etc. ;" — in the objective case, being the object of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb satisfied, according to Eule IV., "A noun, etc." 

1. Each flower drank in the dew. 2. Enough is as good as a feast. 3. 
What preparations were made ? 4. The vessels were separated by the 
gale, and several were lost. 5. Much can be done by a careful arrange- 
ment of duties. 6. The same feelings of humanity moved the hearts 
of every one present. 7. Many are called, but few are chosen. 8. This 
book is all that's left me now. 9. Ah ! well do I remember those whose 
names these records bear. 10. In these times, that which is practical 
receives the most attention from the public. 

Why is it that every one is so much pleased with the common ivy ? 
There is a charm about that plant, which all feel, but none can tell why. 
Observe it lianging from the arch of some old bridge, and consider how 
great the interest which it gives to that object; such an interest as but 
few plants are able to give. 

RULE XII.— AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS. 

A finite verb agrees witli its subject in number 
and person. 

NOTES. 

1. The pronoun ive or yo^i, even when rei:)resenting a single 
individual, requires the plural form of a verb, because the 
form of the pronoun is plural; as, "John, you are in error." 

2. A verb in the imperative agrees with the pronoun thou 
or you understood; as, "Go (thou) to the ant, thou sluggard." 

3. A verb, having for its subject a collective noun which 
suggests the idea of unity, is in the singular .number ; a.-^, 
"Congress holds its sessions in the national capital." 

A collective noun which suggests the idea of plurality re- 
quiren a verb in the plural ; as, " The clergy were blamed for 
the part which they took." 

4. A verb having two or more subjects connected by anid, 



EULE XII. — EXERCISES. 133 

mentioned or understood, is in the plural number; as, "Truth, 
honor, and mercy are noble qualities." 

Two or more subjects in the singular connected by and 
and used to denote but one person or thing, require a verb 
in the singular; as, "That statesman and patriot merits the 
gratitude of his countrymen." 

When singular subjects connected by and are preceded by 
each, every, no, or a similar distributive, they are considered 
separately, and require a verb in the singular ; as, " Every 
nerve and sinew was strained to make the effort." 

5. A verb, having two or more subjects in the singular con- 
nected by or or nor, is in the singular number ; as, " Neither 
the time nor the cause of the accident is knoivii." 

If one of the subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the 
verb should be plural; as, " Neither he nov his friends were to 
be blamed." 

6. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons 
connected by and, is in the first person if any one of the sub- 
jects is in the first person ; as, " He and I (we) are going." 

If there is no subject in the first person, the verb is in the 
second person if any one of the subjects is in the second per- 
son ; as, " You and he (you) are going," 

7. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons 
connected by or or nor, agrees in number and person with the 
subject nearest to it; as, "Either he or lam going." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Was you there when I called?" 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb was, which has the sin- 
gular form, is used to agree with its subject you, which has the plural 
form. Was should be were, and the sentence should be, "Were you 
present when I called?" 

2. — " Every nerve and sinew were strained." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb were strained, which is in 
the plural number, is used to agree with its two subjects nerve and sinew, 
which are in the singular connected by and, and preceded by eve-y. Were 
strained should be was strained, and the sentence should be, "Every 
nerN e and sinew was strained." 



IPA RULE XII. — EXEKCISES. 

3. — " Honor and shame from no condition rises." 

This nentence is incorrect, because the verb rises, wliich -s In the sin- 
gular number, is used to agree with its two subjects, the nouns honor and 
shame, which are connected by and. Rises should be rise, and the sen- 
tence should be, " Honor and shame from no condition rise." 

4. — " He or I is to go." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb is, which is in the third 
person, is used to agree with two subjects of different persons connected 
by or, — he in the third, and Jin the first. Is should be am, and the sen- 
tence should be, " He or I am to go." 

1. Was you there when the accident happened? 2. Neither Mary nor 
her sisters was at the party. 3. "Well," says I, "what does thee think 
of him now ?" 4. The ship, with her crew, were lost at sea. 5. Neither 
lead nor iron are so valuable as gold, but they is more useful. 6. The 
news were very discouraging. 7. No whisper, not a sound, were heard. 
8. Thou, or he, art to go. 9. ISIilton's poetry and his prose is vigorous. 
10. Such, Mr. President, is my sentiments. 11. Every one have certain 
peculiar opinions. 12. Cincinnatus is one of the noblest men that ia 
mentioned in Roman history. 13. Six jnonths' service were enough to 
cure him. 14. Parliament are divided into the House of Lords and the 
House of Commons. 15. He, and he only, were right. 16. Who does 
ttese remarks apply to? 17. Each branch and twig were covered with 
snow. 18. Has all the boys recited their lessons? 

Exercise 1 1. — Par.se the finite verbs in the following sentences: — 

M o D E li 1. — " Henry studies his lesson." 

Studies. — Henry studies lesson. — " Studies" is a finite transitive verb, 
regular (pres. study, past, studied, perf. part, studied) ; it is in the active 
voice, indicative mode, present tense, and agrees with its subject, the 
noun Henry, in the singular number, third person, according to Rule 
XII., "A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person." 

2. — " Henry and James study diligently." 

Study. — Henry and James study. — " Study" is a finite intransitive verb, 
regular (pres. study, past, studied, perf. part, studied) ; — in the indicative 
mode, present tense, and agrees with its two subjects, the nouns Henry 
and James, connected by and, in the plural number, third person, ac- 
nording to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc.," and Note under Rule 
XII., "A verb having two or more subjects connected by and, etc " 

8. — " If it should rain, I will remain." 



RULE XIII. — INFINITIVES — NOTES. 135 

Should rain.— (If) it should rain.— "Should rain" is a finite intrans. 
verb, reg. (rain, rained, rained,) ; in the potential mode (used subjunc- 
tively), past tense, and agrees with its subject, the pronoun it, in the sing, 
num., third person, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc." 

1. Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire in 1782. 2. Maintain 
strict temperance in eating and in drinking. 3. The cocoa-tree and the 
banana bloom in torrid climates. 4. The jury could not agree upon a 
verdict. 5. Sorrow or joy alone is not our portion. 6. If he conduct 
himself properly, I know that he will be respected. 7. Never speak for 
a truth any thing which you know or believe is false. 8. Give me under- 
standing, and I shall keep thy law. 9. He or I am accused of the crime. 
10. You or they must go. 

Aa a race, the American Indians have withered from the land. Their 
arrows are broken, their springs are dried up, their cabins are in the 
dust. Their council-fire has long since gone out on the shore, and their 
war-cry is fast dying away to the untrodden West. Slowly and sadly 
they climb the distant mountains, and read their doom in the setting 
Bun. They shrink before the mighty tide which presses them away ; and 
they must soon hear the roar of the last wave which will settle over 
them forever. 

RULE XIII.— INFINITIVES. 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the 
word which it limits or completes in meaning. 

NOTES. 

1. A verb in the infinitive mode usually depends upon a 
finite verb ; but it may depend upon another infinitive, upon 
a participle, or upon any part of speech except the article 
and the interjection. 

2. An infinitive may be used as a noun in the nomina- 
tive or in the objective case; as, "To study seemed his only 
desire." 

3. The auxiliary to should not be separated from the re- 
mainder of the infinitive by any intervening word : thus, 
" Be careful to not disturb him," should be, " Be careful not 
to disturb him," 

4. The auxiliary to is usually omitted when the infinitive 

12 



136 RULE XIII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

follows the active voice of the verbs bid (to comm ind) dare 
(to venture), /ee^, hear, let, make, need, see, and a few others; 
as, "I did not hear him {to) speak on that subject." 

To is not omitted after the passive voice of these verbs ; as, 
" The prisoner was seen to commit the act." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 

Mode l. — " You may bid him to come now." 

This sentence is incorrect, because to, which is a part of the infinitive, 
is used after the active voice of the verb hid. To should be omitted, 
and the sentence should be, "You may bid him come now." 

1. Let no falsehood to pass your lips. 2. The train was peen slowly 
start from the depot. 3. Officers were ordered to immediately report to 
the commander. 4. If a child is bid do a thing, he should be made do 
it. 5. Although the men suflTered much, no one was heard complain. 6. 
Tliey were heard plan the burglary. 7. Some are able to easily commit 
to memory long lessons, but they are apt to soon forget them. 8. He 
durst not to enter without his father's permission. 9. We are bid relieve 
the wants of the needy. 

Exercise II. — Parse the infinitives in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "He hastened to leave the country." 

To leave. — Hastened to leave country. — " To leave" is a transitive verb, 
irregular (leave, left, left) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, present 
tense, and depends upon the verb hastened, which it completes in mean- 
ing, according to Eule XIII., "A verb in the infinitive mode, etc." 

2. — " To live well should be our constant aim." 

To live. — To live should be. — " To live" is an intransitive, regular verb, 
in the infinitive mode; it is used as a noun in the sing, number, third 
person, and of the neat. gend. ; in the nom. case, being the subj. of the 
finite verb should be, according to Rule I., "A noun, etc." 

1. The rain began to descend in torrents. 2. Early eflbrts are known 
to have been made to find a north-west passage. 3. He learned to read 
from the signs along the streets, 4. The two friends appeared to be 
beloved by all that knew them. 5. Washington seems to have taken 
great pleasure in the chase. 6. Let us never forget how liable we are to 
err. 7. The children feared that it would begin to rain, and then they 
would be compelled to remain in the house. 8. He who wishes to be 
educated, has only to apply his mind properly, and he can not fail to 
succeed. 



BULE XIV. PARTICIPLES NOTES. 137 

You pretena, Mark Anthony, that it is all to protect yoi a- persi)n. Is 
it not far better to die a thousand deaths, than to be unable to live in 
one's own country without guards of armed men? We muat be fenced 
round by the affections and the good will of our countrymen, not by their 
arms, if we wish to be secure. 

RULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

A participle relates to the noun or tlie pronoun 
wliich it describes or limits. 

NOTES. 

1. A participle may be used as a noun in the nomina- 
tive or in the objective case; as, "Reading good books pro- 
motes knowledge." — "The morals are corrupted hy reading 
bad books." 

A participle thus used may be followed by a noun or a pro- 
noun which is the object of the action denoted by the par- 
ticiple; as, "He took pleasure in doing his duty." 

2. A participle preceded by an article or an adjective is a 
noun simply, and is generally followed by the preposition of 
to govern an objective following ; as, " That reading of the play 
was much admired." 

8. The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should be 
joined with the auxiliaries have and be; as, "He has gone to 
travel in Europe," — not, " He has tvent, etc." 

4. The perfect participle should never be used instead of 
the past tense to express simply past time : thus, " James seen 
him do it," should be, " James saiv him do it," — " He begu7i 
to read," should be, " He began to read." 

ExEBCiSE I. — Correct the following sentences : — ■ 
Model 1. — " By the telling the truth at all times, we may be trusted." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the article the is used before the par- 
ticiple telling, which is used as a noun, and is not followed by of. The 
should be omitted, and the sentence should be, " By telling the truth at 
r11 times, etc." 
2. — "James has saw the whole transaction." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the past tense of the verb to see is 



138 RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES EXERCISES. 

used instead of the perfect part, after the auxiliary luive. Saw should 
be seen, and the sentence should be, " James has seen, etc." 

1. He done notliing properly. 2. I have saw him but once this week, 
3. The singing the song was postponed. 4. I think that they have all 
went home. 5. The letter come to the office last week. 6. All her arti- 
cles of jewelry were stole from the room. 7. Many months were spent 
in the learning the French language. 8. A very good composition was 
wrote upon that subject. 9. Vessels run upon the rocky beach, and were 
wrecked. 10. The ponds and streams were froze during the night. 11. 
Not many words were spoke upon that subject. 12. Some one has took 
my cap. 13. Snow has fell to-day for the first time. 14. I did not see 
the book torn, and I do not know who done it. 

' Exercise 1 1. — Parse the participles, the participial nouns, and the 
participial adjectives, in the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "An opportunity neglected never returns." 

Neglected. — Opportunity neglected. — "Neglected" is the perfect part, 
of the passive voice of the trans, regular verb to neglect (imp. being neglected, 
perf. neglected, preperf. having been neglected) ; it relates to the noun oppor- 
tunity, which it describes, according to Kule XIV., "A participle relates 
to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits." 

2. — " By observing the faults of others, we may avoid similar ones." 

Observing. — By observing faults. — " Observing" is the imperf. part, of 
the active voice of the trans, reg. verb to observe; it is used as a noun in 
the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; in the 
objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition 
by, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

3. — " The earth is clothed in living beauty." 

Living. — Living beauty. — "Living" is the imperfect participle of the 
intransitive, regular verb to live; it is used as an adjective ; it can not be 
compared ; it relates to the noun beauty, which it describes, according to 
Rule X., "An adjective, etc." 

1. A few wild flowers, shedding sweetest perfume around, reared their 
heads in the half-cleared woods. 2. A clambering vine clung to the old 
oak withered by the lightning's blast. 3. The gray-haired chieftain,, 
having returned from the chase, called a council of his clan. 4. They 
abandoned the enterprise, having been convinced of its great danger. 5. 
Let not the evening close upon any day without having added something 
to your store of knowledge. 6. The hulk, blackened and charred by th« 



RULE XV. — ADVEEES — IS^OTES — EXERCISES. 139 

burning oil, floated to the sliore, driven by a light breeze blowing from 
the east. 

We were walking in a beautiful grove, from which the w iod had been 
partially cleared; many fine trees were left standing, mingled with the 
Btumps of others long since felled. The mossy roots of those moulder- 
ing old stumps are choice places for the early flowers; one often finds 
the remains of an old oak, or pine, or chestnut, encircled by a beautiful 
border of this kind, mosses and flowers blended together in a manner 
which art can never equal. 

RULE XV.— ADVERBS. 

An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, oi 
tbe other adverb, which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. An adverb should not be used as an adjective, nor should 
it ever be employed to denote quality: thus, "The soonest 
moment," should be, "The earliest moment;" "She looks 
sweetly," should be, " She looks sweet." 

2. No as an adverb can qualify comparatives only; as, "The 
task no longer appeared difficult." Therefore no should never 
be used after or to qualify a verb understood : thus, " Will you 
go, or nof should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go)?" 

3. Two negatives should not be used in the same proposi- 
tion if a negation is intended ; as, "He can not do any harm," 
not, " He can not do no harm." 

4. Adverbs should be placed near the words which they 
qualify. In general, an adverb precedes the adjective or the 
adverb Avhich it qualifies, — and follows the verb, or is placed 
between the verb and its auxiliary. 

Thus, " He is triily happy." — "A very carefully written book." 
— " He fought nobly, and he was nobly rewarded." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — "How pleasantly this breeze feels !" 

This sentence is incorrect, because pleasantly, which is an adverb, la 
used as an adjective to describe the noun breeze. Pleasantly should ha 
pleasant, and the sentence should be, " How pleasant this breeze feels V 

2.- " The ship is soon expected to arrive." 
12* 



140 RULE XV. EXEECISES. 

This SM.tence is incorrect, because the adverb soon is placed so aa to 
qualify the verb is expected, when, properly, it should qualify the infini- 
tive to arrive. The sentence should be, "The ship is expected to 
arrive soon." 

1. How beautifully the garden looks i 2. I am glad to see you exceed- 
ingly. 3. The oftenest warnings are the most neglected. 4. The peni- 
tent lad promised never to commit the offence no more. 5. Velvet feels 
more smootlily than broadcloth. 6. I am undecided whether to return or 
no. 7. This peach tastes deliciously. 8. The soldiers appeared finely in 
their new uniforms. 9. He seemed very badly yesterday. 10. Will you 
never do nothing to please me? 11. It shall be done at the soonest op- 
I)ortunity. 12. It is like enough that you are wrong. 13. He will never 
be no wiser. 

ExEKCiSE II. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

Mod Eli 1. — "He answers promptly, for he has been very attentive." 

Promptly. — Answers promptly. — "Promptly" is an adverb of manner; 
it can be compared (pos. promptly, comp. more promptly, sup. most promptly) ; 
it is in the positive degree, and relates to the verb ansivers, which it quali- 
fies, according to Eule XV., "An adverb relates, etc." 

2. — Very. — Very attentive. — "Very" is an adverb of degree; it can not 
be compared ; it relates to the adjective attentive, which it qualifies, ac- 
cording to Eule XV., "An adverb, etc." 

1. The timid rabbit treads softly on the dry leaves. 2. Knowledge can 
not be stolen from you. 3. He who most blames, is usually most to be 
blamed. 4. Our duties are not always agreeable. 5. Charles was ex- 
tremely fond of play, and, tliough he was rarely punctual at school, he 
seldom failed to be first upon the ball-ground. 6. Edward could learn 
easily ; if he only read his lesson over once or twice, he could recite it 
well. 7. He that can not live well to-day, will be less prepared to live 
■well to-morrow. 8. How deliciously cool the air is upon the summit 
of tliis breezy hill ! 9. I pity the man who has never been wise enough 
to find out that he has sometimes been mistaken. 

That which we foolishly call vastness is, rightly considered, not more 
wonderful, not more impressive, than that which we insolently call little- 
ness; and the infinity of God is not mysterious, it is only unfathomable* 
not concealed, but incomprehensible: it is a clear infinity like the dark, 
ness of the pure, u asearchable sea. 



EULE XVI. — PEEPOSIIIONS — NOTES. lU 

RULE XVI.— PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition shows the relation between the 
Qoun or the pronoun which follows it, and some 
preceding word. 

NOTES. 

1. The preposition to or unto is commonly omitted after the 
adjectives or adverbs like, near, and nigh; as, "The child is 
like (to) his father." — "The Indians came near (to) the fort." 

2. The preposition is often omitted after verbs of giving, 
procuring, etc. ; and before a term denoting time, place, or 
measure; as, "He gave (to) me a book." — " He procured (for) 
him a ticket." — "A stream (by) five rods wide." 

3. Care should be taken to use those prepositions which will 
correctly express the relation intended ; as, " I have need of 
your aid," not " — for your aid." 

In, denoting situation, is often improperly used for into, de- 
noting entrance : thus, " He came into the room," not, " He 
came in the room." 

Between or betwixt refers to two objects or sets of objects 
only ; — among or amongst, always to more than two ; as, " Never 
hesitate between virtue and vice." — "Among so many men it is 
hard to choose." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 
Model. — "His opinions are very different to those." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition to does not express 
the intended relation between the adjective different and the pronominal 
those. To should be from, and the sentence should be, " His opinions are 
very different from those." 

1. The day being stormy, I staid to home. 2. My brother came in the 
room. 3. We have much need for your assistance. 4. The dog is very 
like to the wolf. 5. He was accused with stealing. 6. This pursuit is 
agreeable with my tavStes. 7. The property was divided between the 
three children. 8. On our trip down the lake we touched in Cleveland 
and Erie. 9. The city was now in full possession by our troops. 10. I 
am sorry that you have taken such a dislike for study. 11. Envy ia 
Inseparable with greatness. 



142 EULE XVII.^CON JUNCTIONS — NOTES. 

ExEKCiSE 1 1. — Parse the prepositions in the following se; tences :— 
Model — "The scenes of my boyhood passed before me." 
Of. — Scenes of boyhood. — "Of" is a simple preposition; it is used 
before the noun boyhood to show its relation to the noun scenes, according 
to Eule XVI., "A preposition shows the relation, etc." 

Before. — Passed before me. — "Before" is a compound preposition ; it is 
used before the pronoun me to show its relation to the verb passed, ac- 
cording to Rule XVI., "A preposition shows, etc." 

1. The tops of the hills are white with snow. 2. A good scholar is 
known by his obedience to the rules of the school. 3. Two young girls 
were sitting upon the lawn under an elm. 4. We should do every thing 
for the truth, and nothing against it. 5. Between the eyes and the nose 
a strange contest arose. 6. A wagon loaded with wheat-sheaves was 
slowly coming up the lane towards the old red barn. 7. A quick, sharp 
clang clattered through the heavens, and bellowed loud and long among 
the hills; presently the storm broke upon us with all its fury. 

Generals Worth and Quitman pursued the flying enemy over the cause- , 
way, and before night succeeded in gaining possession of the western 
gates. Santa Anna withdrew his troops in the night, and the next morn- 
ing the national palace was occupied by the American forces. 

RULE XVII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a 
sentence, or the sentences, between which it is placed. 

NOTES. 

1. Words connected by conjunctions are of the same class, 
and are in the same construction ; as, " The house is large and 
handsome." — " The city was attacked and (was) captured." 

A noun and a pronoun may be connected; as, "Mary and 
she are very studious." 

2. A clause containing an adjective or an adverb in the 
comparative degree, or containing else, other, otherwise, or 
rather, should be connected with a clause following by than; 
as, " It is more blessed to give than to receive." 

3. There is generally an ellipsis in the clause which is con- 
nected with a preceding clause by than or as. 

lu supplying the eHipsis after than or as, the second claase 



RULE XVII. — EXEECISES. 143 

should be made to correspond with the first; as, * He is not 
60 far advanced as I (am advanced)." — " He is better than 
James (is good)." 

4. As should not be used for who, tvhom, or which, or for 
that: thus, " I saw the man as did it," should be, " I saw the 
man who did it." — " He said as (that) he would go," 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences : — 

Mod EX,. — " I could not do otherwise but obey." 

This sentence is incorrect, because but is improperly used for than after 
a clause containing otherwise. But should be than, and the sentence should 
be, " I could not do otherwise than obey." 

1. Mary had no other excuse but that. 2. The man as came in last 
was the lecturer. 3. Who else should come but my uncle? 4. The child 
had no other shawl but the one as she then wore. 5. This conduct is 
nothing else but folly. 6. The man as robbed the bank was caught by 
the police. 7. My cousin is not quite so tall as me. 8. I can skate 
farther and better than him. 

ExEKCiSE 1 1. — Parse the conjunction.^ in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — " James reads and writes." 

And. — Beads and writes. — "And" is a conjunction, and connects the 
two verbs reads and urrites, between which it is placed, according to Kule 
XVII., "A conjunction connects, etc." 

2. — " If it is necessary, I will accompany you." 

If. — I will accompany you if it is necessary. — "If" is a conjunction, and 
connects the two parts of the sentence, I will accompany you, and it is 
necessary, between wKich it is placed, according to Kule XVII. 

J.. Coal and iron abound in Pennsylvania. 2. The sun shines, and the 
air is balmy. 3. " You may bend, but you cannot break me," said the 
reed to the wind. 4. The path of truth is a plain and safe path. 5. If we 
delay, we will lose precious moments. 6. There is no worse robber than 
a bad book. 7. I hid myself, because I was afraid. 8. More men drift 
into error than steer into it. 9. So live that you may not fear to die. 
10. Since God has made us to live in society, he designs that we should 
be helpful to one another. 

Good plants and flowers will not be found in a garden unless seed is 
planted. But weeds will spring up without being planted ; and, if they 
are permitted to grow, they will soon become thicker and stronger than 
the good I '.ants, and will choke them to death. It is so w'ith the mind: 



141 EULE XVIII. — INTEEJJECTI02>S — NOTES. 

the soil is good ; but angry and wicked thonghts are apt to spring up in 
it, and, if allowed to remain, tliey mil soon choke the good thoughts, and 
kill them. 

EULE XVIII.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection has no grammatical dependence 
upon any other word. 

Exercise. — Parse the interjections in the following sentences: — 

Mode l. — " Oh ! I am so sorry !" 

Oh. — "Oh" is an interjection; it has no dependence upon any othei 
word, according to Eule XVIII., "An interjection has, etc." 

1. Hurrah ! I have a new ball. 2. Bravo ! you are a fine fellow. 3. 
Hist ! I hear them coming. 4. Ah ! gentlemen, that was a fearfiil mis- 
take. 5. How soon, alas! he has perished! 

GENERAL RULE, 

In the expression of thought, those forms and 
usages of language should be employed which will 
best express the meaning intended. 

NOTES. 

1. Every verb should be used with its appropriate form and 
meaning: thus, "He set still," should be, "He sat still;" — 
" The meadows ivere overflown," should be, " The meadows 
were overflowed." 

The verbs most frequently misused one foi: another are/ee, 
for fly; lay, for lie; learn, for teach; raise, for rise; and set, 
for sit. 

2. Care should be taken to use that tense which will denote 
accurately the relative time of an action or event : thus, " I knew 
it this long time," should be, "I have known it this long time." 

3. The indicative present should be used to express what is 
always true or always false; as, "Galileo proved that the 
earth is round." 

4. Such expressions as had rather, had better, had like, had 
ought, had as lief, though in common use, are ungrammatical, 
and should be avoided. 

Thus, " I had rather go than not," should be, " I would rather 



• GENERAL EXERCISE. 145 

go than not." — " I had like to have missed the chance," should 
be, " 1 almost missed the chance." 

Exercise. — Correct the following sentences : — 

M D E li 1. — " The men were compeiled to fly." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb to fly, meaning to soar (as 
"Vith wings), is used instead of to flee, meaning to hasten (as from danger). 
F7if should be^e, and the sentence should be, "The men were compelled 
to flee." 

2. — " I am twenty-one next June." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb am, which is in the present 
tense, does not denote accurately the time of the event referred to, which 
is future. Am should be will be, and the sentence should be, "I will be 
twenty-one next June." 

1. The dog laid near the door. 2. The child could not set still so 
long. 3. Winter sat in early. 4. Where have you lain your cap? 5. 
They had ought to have finished the work much sooner. 6. The wounded 
deer flew to the lake. 7. I am an invalid these many years. 8. You had 
better stop if the man tells you, 9. The ancients did not know that the 
earth was round. 10. 1 had rather not take it, sir. 11. My mother learned 
me my alphabet. 1 2. The tide raises very rapidly in this narrow bay. 13. 
The teacher said that the sun was the source of light and heat. 14. The 
steamer was advertised to have sailed yesterday. 15. They would have 
been very angry if I did not speak pleasantly. 16. I have finished my 
work two hours ago. 17. It was two years next spring since Mary died. 
18. I intended to have gone to-morrow. 

GENEKAL EXERCISE. 
Analyze each sentence, and parse each word, in the following extracts : — 
The Stream of Life. — Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty 
river. Our boat at first glides down the narrow channel, through the 
playful murmuring of the little brook and the winding of its grassy 
border. The trees shed their blossoms over our young heads, and the 
flowers on the brink seem to offer themselves to our young hands ; we 
are happy in hope, and grasp eao:erly at the beauties around us; but the 
stream hurries on, and our hands are still empty. 

Our course in youth and in manhood is along a wider and deeper 
flood, among objects more striking and magnificent. We are animated 
by the moving picture of enjoyment and industry passing bef jre us : we 



146 GENEEAL, EXEECISE. ■ 

are excited by some short-lived disappointment. Tlie stream bears oa 
on, and our joys and our griefs are alike left behind us. 

We may be shipwrecked, but we are not delayed : whether rough or 
smooth, the river hastens towards its home, till the roar of the ocean in 
in our eans, and the tossing of its waves is beneath our feet, and the land 
lessens from our view, and the floods are lifted up around us, and we 
take our leave of earth and its inhabitants, until of our farther voyage 
there is no witness save the Infinite and Eternal. 

In slumbers of midnight the sailor-boy lay, 

His hammock swung loose at the sport of the wind ; 

But, watch-worn and weary, his cares flew away. 
And visions of happiness danced o'er his mind. 

He dream'd of his home, of his dear native bowers, 
And pleasures that waited on life's merry morn, 

While Memory each scene gayly cover'd with flowers, 
And restored every rose, but secreted the thorn. 

Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide, 

And bade the young dreamer in ecstasy rise ; 
Now, far, far behind him the green waters glide, 

And the cot of his forefathers blesses his eyes. 

Toil on ! toil on ! ye ephemeral train. 

Who build in the tossing and treacherous main: 

Toil on, — for the wisdom of man ye mock, 

With your sand-based structures and domes of rock; 

Your ccmmns the fathomless fountains lave, 

And your arches spring up to the crested wave* 

Ye're a puny race, thus boldly to rear 

A fabric so vast, in a realm so drear. 



THE END. 



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